WHY DID THE CHURCH FALL INTO APOSTASY?

Dan Petty

The New Testament predicted there would be apostasy. Paul wrote that “in later times some will fall away from the faith” (1 Tim. 4:1; cf. 2 Thess. 2:3-7). The study of church history shows that apostasy was a slow, gradual process that took place over decades or even centuries. Changes in church organization, innovations in worship, and restatements of doctrine combined to bring about a general departure from the primitive Christianity described in the New Testament.

History can help us understand not only the nature of the changes in the practice and teaching of the church, but also some of the reasons for those changes. Why did apostasy occur? This article will identify several factors in the church’s falling away and provide some illustrations of the reasons for the apostasy.

TEACHING AND GIVING HEED TO FALSE DOCTRINE

Most of the warnings in the New Testament were intended to alert Christians to the trends that could ultimately result in apostasy. At the heart of these warnings would be the presence of men “speaking perverse things” (Acts 20:29-31), those who would “not endure sound doctrine” (2 Tim. 4:1-4), and false teachers who “introduce destructive heresies” (2 Pet. 2:1-3). Thus it is not surprising to find that there were in fact those in the early church who taught doctrines that challenged the faith of Christians and led many away from the gospel.

Gnosticism. The most dangerous doctrinal challenge in the second century was Gnosticism, which was influenced by the dualism of Greek philosophy with its sharp contrast between matter and spirit. Combining elements of Christianity, Judaism, Greek philosophy and Persian religion, Gnostics taught that the material world is inherently evil, and that there was no resurrection of the body. Salvation was achieved by means of a special mysterious knowledge (gnosis). Some Gnostics practiced asceticism (abstinence from all sensual pleasure) while others gave in to license (total indulgence).

Such heresies illustrate that apostasy was often simply the result of teaching and following after strange doctrines.

DEFENDING THE FAITH

The Church in a Hostile World. From the beginning of its existence, the church of Christ was taught to maintain separation from the world. Therefore, because the church was viewed by outsiders as a foreign sect and therefore as a threat to society, the early Christians were often the victims of persecution or other forms of attack. Many of the attacks were little more than slanderous rumors. Perhaps more challenging were the efforts to show that Christianity is intellectually unreasonable.

The Apologists. The “apologists” were Christian defenders of the faith against all these attacks. The apologists wrote throughout the second and early third century to dispel false rumors by showing what Christianity was really like. They also argued for the reasonableness of Christianity by demonstrating its link with the Old Testament, thus showing that its roots were even older than Greek philosophy.

The apologists approached their task with differing attitudes toward the pagan world and their efforts to defend their beliefs. There were two opposing tendencies. Some of the apologists attacked every aspect of paganism. Tertullian, for example, was concerned that many in the church were compromising the gospel even as they set out to defend it: “What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” (Prescription Against Heretics 7). There were others, however, who sought to build bridges to the pagan world. Apologists such as Justin Martyr tended to see in the pagan world elements of truth which they attributed to divine providence. So the apologists sometimes adopted ideas and terminology of the philosophies current in their day. They attempted to explain Christianity in philosophical terms familiar to and more acceptable to their audiences. While endeavoring to demonstrate the intellectual reasonableness of the faith, they sometimes came to treat Christianity as a philosophical system in competition with others. Later controversies over the trinity and the deity of Christ were, in part, a consequence of such thinking.

DESIRE FOR UNITY OF DOCTRINE AND PRACTICE

Credalism. In the face of heresies such as Gnosticism, and in the interest of preserving unity of doctrine, creeds were developed. Irenaeus in about AD 180 set forth in the form of a rule of faith the beliefs which the church supposedly had received from the apostles (Against Heresies 1.10.1). This would, he thought, serve as a way to test orthodoxy and distinguish true teachers from false ones. What is important to note is that this tendency to refine and formalize what were considered to be true beliefs, at first grew out of a desire to maintain unity of doctrine. What began as efforts to state succinctly the beliefs that were considered apostolic because they were in harmony with God’s word, set a precedent for further creed-making and eventually evolved into official dogmas that were themselves regarded as authoritative.

Changes in Organization. Ignatius of Antioch in the early second century appears to be the first to advocate a form of church organization different from what is taught in the New Testament (Phil. 1:1; Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5, 7). He describes a three-tiered ministry consisting of bishop, elders and deacons in each church. He reserved the term bishop for a single member of the presbytery who is exalted above the elders. Ignatius was partly motivated by his concern for unity in the church. There were doctrines in Antioch which he opposed as heresy. He thought having a single bishop presiding over a church would prevent divisions. In one letter he wrote, “Flee from schism as the source of mischief... Nobody must do anything that has to do with the Church without the bishop’s approval... In that way everything you do will be on the safe side and valid” (Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 6-9).

Irenaeus (AD 130-200) went further. He also advocated greater organization and authority for the church in order to oppose heresy. Like Ignatius, he wanted a standard type of Christianity that would help preserve unity in the church. In order to place the church under more authority, Irenaeus appealed to the idea of “apostolic succession.” The presiding bishop should be regarded as a successor to the apostles. By the close of the third century the doctrine of apostolic succession was gaining acceptance.

Further changes in church organization gradually encouraged the development of a centralized hierarchy in the church. Bishops of the large city churches gained greater prominence. They assisted in establishing new congregations, which sometimes came under their authority. About the mid-second century, some bishops began the practice of having meetings or synods with other bishops in their locale. The more prominent city bishops often came to oversee the work of country bishops, who began to disappear.

THE “PENDULUM” FACTOR

In some cases departures occurred as the result of over-reacting to some error or perceived problem. Often the pendulum was allowed to swing from one position to an opposite extreme.

Montanism. Tertullian is an example. At first he supported the idea of greater authority for the bishop. Later he reacted against the growing formalism and reliance on human leadership in the church. Tertullian became opposed to the growing importance of bishops, and went to an opposite extreme, joining a sect called the Montanists. The Montanists believed the church was to be guided not by apostolic writings, but by direct guidance of the Holy Spirit. They are recognized as the earliest forerunners of modern Pentecostalism.

Monasticism. Monasticism also arose in part as a reactionary movement. Beginning in the fourth century, many began to withdraw from a society that had become increasingly depraved and from a church that had become increasingly tainted by pagan society. The dualistic view of flesh and spirit that had formed the basis of asceticism was already present in the gnostic movement. Some argued for the celibate lifestyle. The union of church and state after Constantine left many in the church even more disillusioned and looking for a way of escape. After the end of the great persecutions, some may have even seen the monastic life as a worthy substitute for martyrdom as a way to pledge their faith.

Arianism. There is a sense in which the controversy over the trinity arose out of a concern to avoid a polytheistic view of God. Monarchianism, a precursor to Arianism, arose in the third century as some wanted to emphasize the unity of God in opposition to any attempt to conceive of God as three separate personalities. In about AD 319, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began preaching that only God the Father is eternal and unoriginated. Christ was created by the Father out of nothing. “There was when he was not,” Arius explained. Thus Arius taught that Christ was neither eternal nor divine. Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicaea in AD 325, yet the controversy continued for several more decades. The Nicene Creed was developed in response to Arianism as the first “ecumenical creed” and was finally upheld in yet another ecumenical council, at Constantinople in AD 381.

The Deity of Christ. The trinitarian controversy was followed by a controversy over the relationship between the human and divine natures of Christ. In general theologians emphasized either the deity of Christ or His humanity, depending on whether they were more concerned about His role as the teacher of divine truth or as the savior of mankind. Often, in their zeal to avoid one doctrinal error, they went to the opposite extreme. Their positions were often influenced by their philosophical presuppositions.

CULTURAL COMPROMISE AND ACCOMMODATION

Constantine. The union of church and state under Constantine in about AD 312 was a watershed event that led to the secularization of the church, thus contributing in a major way to its apostasy. The persecutions ended, Christianity was legalized, and the ideal of separation from the world was compromised. Church leaders were often controlled by secular rulers, while the church often called upon the state to help enforce discipline. The church was increasingly organized along lines somewhat parallel to the Roman government. This contributed to the development of a centralized church hierarchy with one head.

Changes in Worship. Mass “conversions” of pagans contributed to the “paganization” of the church in several ways. The increased use of images and the veneration of angels, saints, relics, pictures and statues were, in part, a result of a desire to make the worship of an invisible God more accessible to pagan converts. The church sought to honor its martyrs in much the same way as the pagans had been accustomed to venerate their heroes. Some pagan religious festivals were adopted by the church and given new significance. Simple worship services were gradually replaced by more colorful, ornate liturgies with an increasing distinction between the clergy and laity, as the church sought to conform to the pomp and ceremony of state pageantry. Certain rites were classed as sacraments or channels of divine grace by about AD 400. The Lord’s Supper came to be regarded as a sacrifice, perhaps influenced by the blood sacrifices in the Old Testament as well as by pagan religion.

THE “DOMINO” EFFECT

Once a particular doctrine was accepted, others often followed. The doctrines of original sin and infant baptism are clear illustrations.

Original Sin and Infant Baptism. The doctrine of original sin arose from early efforts to understand the universality of sin and the general depravity of humanity. Some argued that the human race inherited the guilt and consequences of the Adamic sin, so that all are born in sin. The belief in original sin contributed to the importance of infant baptism. By the beginning of the third century the baptism of babies was an accepted fact. Infant baptism was especially emphasized in connection with original sin by Augustine.

LEARNING HISTORY’S LESSONS

There has always been a danger that God's people would make the same spiritual mistakes “like their fathers” (Psa. 78:8; cf. Mt. 23:32: Acts 7:51). Events of the past were preserved in scripture “for our instruction” (Rom. 15:4; 1 Cor. 10:6). In the same way, these lessons from history may help us recognize dangerous trends. It is often true that “those who cannot remember the past are condemned to fulfill it.”