SPIRITUALITY MOVEMENTS IN CHURCH HISTORY

Dan Petty

 

INTRODUCTION.

1.                  Religious movements have arisen in the history of Christianity that are especially centered on attaining a greater degree of spiritual vitality or fulfillment.

2.                  In this study we want to survey some of those movements.

3.                  We will look primarily at three periods in the history of the church and some significant spirituality movements in those periods.

4.                  Efforts at spiritual renewal have tended to exhibit certain characteristics.

a.                   They have often arisen as the result of some reaction to what is perceived as a failure on the part of the church, and the need for spiritual renewal.

b.                  Sometimes people turn inward or withdraw. Some of the religious movements we will look at exhibit mystical, quietistic or ascetic tendencies.

c.                   Other movements have been aware of the need for a more practical spiritual life. These efforts are sometimes referred to as pietism.

5.                  We should be aware of the danger of the “pendulum” – of allowing our disapproval or rejection of a particular error or problem to lead us to an opposite and equally unacceptable extreme in our practice of Christianity.

 

I.                    ASCETIC MOVEMENTS: MONASTICISM

A.                 Monasticism made its earliest appearance in Egypt and Palestine towards the end of the third century.

1.                  In its primitive forms it was a way of life adopted by solitaries (anchorites) living in the desert. The word “monk” comes from the Greek monos, meaning “alone.” Those who saw this as a way to have a deeper faith withdrew from society to pursue the spiritual life in solitude.

2.                  However, many monks – most in fact – came to live in organized communities with others of like mind.

B.                 Why did the monastic movement arise?

1.                  Ascetic withdrawal from the world – renunciation of marriage, property, and ordinary pleasures and comforts of life, in order to discipline the senses and free the mind for a deeper level of spiritual contemplation, is a feature already present in the ancient religious world.

a.                   The Essenes (Qumran) were an ascetic community who lived in settlements similar to later Christian monasteries.

b.                  Greco-Roman philosophy (Stoics and Neoplatonists) already regarded the passions of man to be the enemy of true wisdom. So they advocated subjugating the passions.

c.                   Gnosticism emphasized a radical dualism between the spiritual and the material.

2.                  Some passages in the NT seemed to offer support for ascetic withdrawal for those who might be influenced in that direction.

a.                   John the Baptist, living in the wilderness dressed in garments of camel’s hair and living on a diet of locusts and wild honey, served as a voice in the wilderness and example of the religious ascetic.

b.                  Christ’s being led by the Spirit into the desert to be tempted was seen by many as a parable of the inner conflict of the Christian; they thought it meant the quest for God involved separation from the world and the conquest of sensuality and human ambition.

c.                   A favorite story for early ascetics was the Rich Young Man, to whom Jesus responded, “If you wish to be complete, go and sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; and come, follow Me” (Matt. 19:16-22).

d.                  And of course, Paul counseled in favor of remaining unmarried in 1 Corinthians 7 (vs. 1, 8, 26). Even though Paul’s teaching must be taken in context and qualified by his “in view of the present distress,” those looking for support for the celibate life thought they found it here.

3.                  The circumstances of Christianity in the world drastically changed when Constantine became emperor in the early fourth century.

a.                   Before, Christians had had to struggle to maintain their faith in the face of persecution from a hostile empire. Many viewed martyrdom as a pledge of one’s faith. Some may have looked to the ascetic life of the anchorite as another form of martyrdom.

b.                  Others have argued that the ascetic withdrawal resulted from a softening of the moral fiber of the church after Constantine gave peace to the church in 313 and made it the most favored religion. Laxer standards and careerism came into the church once imperial approval had given the church respectability and brought it endowment. There were now large numbers of merely nominal Christians in the church whose commitment was not very strong. Such conditions drove many of the more deeply committed to separate themselves. They decided to follow the monastic life.

C.                 Anthony (ca. 251-ca.356) is usually regarded as the first monk of the desert, and was so regarded by Athanasias, who wrote of his life.

1.                  Born near the Nile of well-to-do parents. They died, leaving inheritance to Anthony and younger sister. Planned to live off inheritance and care for sister. Then read of Rich Young Ruler (Matt. 19:21). Sold all, gave to poor, reserved portion for sister. Then read Matt. 6:34, and sold the rest and place sister under care of virgins of the church. He then left for the desert.

2.                  Spent first years learning monastic life from old man nearby (not the first!). In times of temptation, would resort to stricter discipline--fasting, etc. Later went to live in a tomb in abandoned cemetery, living on bread brought to him by charitable persons. Began having visions of demons that tormented him continuously. At age 35, moved even farther out in the desert to an abandoned fort.

3.                  Became so famous, other monks sought him out to learn, as did curiosity seekers. After many efforts to withdraw to more desolate places, finally agreed to live near some disciples if they would not visit too often.

4.                  Visited Alexandria during Diocletian persecution, but was refused for martyrdom by the prefect. Later visited Alexandria during the Arian controversy. Arians claimed he supported them, so he appeared in person to confound the Arians. Died in 365.

D.                 After Constantine came to power, the life of hermits became increasingly popular. Some declared the deserts more populated than some cities. Perhaps thousands. Led simple life. Strongly opposed and resisted the hierarchical church whose bishops lived in cities and enjoyed great power and prestige. Few monks were ordained, usually against their will. Many monks developed sense of spiritual superiority or elitism. This, coupled with their ignorance and tendency toward fanaticism, often caused them to be used by church leaders for their own ends.

E.                  Many examples of fanaticism or extreme behavior. Simon Stylites (ca. 390-459) lived atop a 60-foot pillar for over 35 years.

F.                  PACHOMIUS AND COMMUNAL MONASTICISM Increasingly, solitary monasticism gave way to a communal form of the monastic life, called "cenobitic", from two Greek words meaning, "communal life".

1.                  Pachomius (ca. 286-346) was the organizer who most contributed to its final shape. Parents were pagan. Taken from home and forced to join army at young age. Consoled by group of Christians. Vowed that if he ever got out of military, he would devote self to serving others. Was allowed to leave; learned about Christianity and was baptized. Later decided to withdraw to desert, where he asked an old anchorite to teach him. After 7 years he built a shelter and was joined by his brother John. Eventually became convinced his calling was to change the nature of his monastic life to serve others. He and brother built large enclosure, and recruited other monks to join. All had to promise absolute obedience to superiors, work with hands, and serve each other. Nine other communities were founded during his lifetime, each with several hundred monks. Mary, his sister, founded similar communities for women.

2.                  Daily life consisted of work and devotion. "Pray without ceasing" was the model; all sang, prayed, recited Scripture, etc., even while doing tasks. There were also set times. Poverty not as extreme as anchorites; some to sell or give to poor or travelers. Hierarchy was clearly defined: superior of each housing unit, superior of monastery, called "abbots". Each abbot from Pachomius on would name his successor.

G.                 The person who set the standard for monasticism in the West was Benedict of Nursia, whose Rule called for monastics to take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. The Rule prescribed a carefully ordered routine of prayer, work, and study which filled every hour of the day.

H.                 Monasticism underwent reforms and changes throughout the middle ages. The Cluny reform of the 10th century and the Cistercians in the 12th c. set out to strengthen the spiritual vitality of monastic house and, in turn, to reform the church. In the 13th c., the mendicant orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans sought to go out among the people of the cities to help them and to preach to them in the vernacular. These friars envisioned their spiritual calling to be, rather than living in monastic communities separated from society, going out and ministering to others.

 

II.                 MYSTIC AND PIETISTIC MOVEMENTS IN THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

A.                 Mysticism is an approach to spirituality in which the individual desires a more direct contact or fellowship with God, sometimes by immediate intuition or contemplation. Mysticism has recurred at various times in history whenever the church lapses into excessive formalism.

B.                 In the late middle ages, mysticism arose partly as a result of the scholastic movement in the medieval Catholic Church, because of its emphasis on reason at the expense of man’s emotions. It was also a protest and reaction against corruption and lack of morals in both the church and society at the time.

C.                 Meister Eckhart is usually credited with the founding of German mysticism. He taught that the goal of the Christian should be union of the spirit with God through the contemplation of the divine. Said God is not known by study or rational argument, but by mystical contemplation in which one is finally lost in the divine. Many accused him of pantheism.

D.                 A more practical form of mystical and spiritual piety arose in the Netherlands when Gerhard Groote, a Flemish mystic, taught and made popular the Devotio Moderna. This was a life of disciplined devotion centered on meditating on the life of Christ. The most famous writing of this school of thought is The Imitation of Christ, by Thomas a Kempis. Was the most widely read book in Europe next to Bible for centuries. They did not accept view of some mystics that the Bible or church not necessary.

E.                  Brethren of the Common Life. Groote founded this movement as effort to call followers to renewed holiness and devotion. Not originally a monastic life. They would continue their vocations, but follow the principles of the modern devotion. Brethren of Common Life founded excellent schools that stressed scholarship and devotion.

F.                  There were certain characteristic features of the Modern Devotion.

1.                  Centrality of the person of Jesus Christ. The Brethren emphasized “imitation” of Christ in the sense of a personal identification with particular moments in the life of Christ, esp. His suffering. Their purpose was to emulate His virtuous life, to manifest Him to others and to center one’s life on devotion to Him.

2.                  Reading of the Scriptures. Members of the Brethren were to make up a “notebook” of the most compelling passages. They devoted themselves to the daily reading of Scripture in the vernacular. They were critical of the scholastics who focused on theology at the expense of Scripture, though they did not turn against church Tradition.

3.                  Moralistic, anti-speculative emphasis. Gerhard Groote’s conversion began in part as a reaction against the failure of the schools, which only seemed to prepare people for a career. The true goal of study should be practical application – to believe and act on the truths of the faith, to progress in virtue. Learning should not be an end in itself nor a means to a career, but a means to increasing personal holiness.

4.                  All of these aspects turned on a greater emphasis on “inwardness.” But not like the late medieval mystics. They were not interested in mystical union with the Divine. Rather, they stressed “inwardness” in the sense of avoiding the perfunctory practice that seemed to characterize so much of late medieval religious life. They wanted to develop the “inner man” – devotion to Christ, subduing the old man, and training of the inner self (heart) in the virtues.

G.                 John van Engen highlighted twelve terms frequently employed by the Brethren to express this new-found piety: conversion; resolution; exercise (entire way of life, prayer and work); progress in the virtues; charity; humility; obedience; heart; affection; ardent (fervent); purity of heart (pp. 28-35).

H.                 Thomas a Kempis was the probable author of The Imitation of Christ.

I.                    Quotes from Imitation.

1.                  “HE WHO follows Me, walks not in darkness, says the Lord. By these words of Christ we are advised to imitate His life and habits, if we wish to be truly enlightened and free from all blindness of heart. Let our chief effort, therefore, be to study the life of Jesus Christ. The teaching of Christ is more excellent than all the advice of the saints, and he who has His spirit will find in it a hidden manna. Now, there are many who hear the Gospel often but care little for it because they have not the spirit of Christ. Yet whoever wishes to understand fully the words of Christ must try to pattern his whole life on that of Christ. What good does it do to speak learnedly about the Trinity if, lacking humility, you displease the Trinity? Indeed it is not learning that makes a man holy and just, but a virtuous life makes him pleasing to God. I would rather feel contrition than know how to define it. For what would it profit us to know the whole Bible by heart and the principles of all the philosophers if we live without grace and the love of God?” (1.1.1-3).

2.                  “EVERY man naturally desires knowledge; but what good is knowledge without fear of God? Indeed a humble rustic who serves God is better than a proud intellectual who neglects his soul to study the course of the stars” (1.2.1).

3.                  “THE kingdom of God is within you, says the Lord. Turn, then, to God with all your heart. Forsake this wretched world and your soul shall find rest. Learn to despise eternal things, to devote yourself to those that are within, and you will see the kingdom of God come unto you, that kingdom which is peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, gifts not given to the impious” (2.1.1).

 

III.               PROTESTANT PIETISM

A.                 Protestant pietism first appeared in the Lutheran tradition. After Luther’s death in 1546, a number of doctrinal controversies arose in Lutheranism. These controversies were eventually “resolved” in the Formula of Concord in 1580. Both Lutherans and Calvinists henceforth developed a precise theological methodology and vocabulary in an effort to defend their theology. The result was an academic theology known as Protestant Orthodoxy or Protestant Scholasticism. They insisted on precisely-worded doctrinal confessions.

B.                 Many began to see this approach to Christianity as dry, polemical, intolerant, lacking concern with practical piety. Critics were men who were more interested in personal renewal, individual growth in holiness, and religious experience.

C.                 The most influential treatise in early Lutheran Pietism was the work of Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705), Pia Desideria; or Heartfelt Desire for a God-Pleasing Improvement of the True Protestant Church (1675).

1.                  This work provoked a growing concern for the practice of piety with Protestantism. It went through 4 editions and was translated into Latin.

2.                  Spener was saddened by the low spiritual state of affairs in Germany. He saw the need for personal repentance and rebirth. His work began in small prayer and study groups.

D.                 In Pia Desideria Spener emphasized the following:

1.                  Noted the decline in morals.

2.                  Called for renewal of study of the Scriptures; group meetings to stimulate growth; priesthood of all believers; practice of piety.

3.                  He placed less emphasis on polemics and more on prayer, moral living and heart-felt love.

4.                  He placed less emphasis on theological knowledge and more on inner illumination, conversion, renovation and sanctification.

E.                  Spener was criticized because some thought he relegated doctrine to a secondary position of importance and elevated personal piety, morality, and devotion; and that he placed too much emphasis on the emotional aspect of religious life.

F.                  Quotes from Pia Desideria.

1.                  In the first section, Spener says, “Thought should be given to a more extensive use of the Word of God among us.” Accordingly he presribes (1) diligent reading of the Bible in the home; (2) public reading of the books of the Bible in order; (3) mutual edification in the church meetings based on Scripture.

2.                  The second section emphasizes the “establishment and diligent exercise of the spiritual priesthood.” “All spiritual functions are open to all Christians without exception.”

3.                  “Connected with these two proposals is a third: The people must have impressed upon them and must accustom themselves to believing that it is by no means enough to have knowledge of the faith, for Christianity consists rather of practice....

If we can therefore awaken a fervent love among our Christians, first toward one another and then toward all men . . . and put this love into practice, practically all that we desire will be accomplished.”

4.                  “Related to this is a fourth proposal: We must beware how we conduct ourselves in religious controversies with unbelievers and heretics.” In this regard we he says we must (1) strengthen ourselves in the truth and in our duty toward the erring and pray for their enlightenment; (2) give them a good example and be careful not to give a bad impression of the truth; (3) try to set forth the simplicity of Christ’s teaching, showing “decently but forcefully how their errors conflict with the word.... All of this should be done in such a way that those with whom we deal can see for themselves that everything is done out of heartfelt love toward them, without carnal and unseemly feelings, and that if we ever indulge in excessive vehemence this occurs out of pure zeal for the glory of God. Especially should we beware of invectives and personal insinuations, which at once tear down all the good we have in mind to build.” (4) Practice heartfelt love toward all unbelievers and heretics, even while opposing their false belief. (5) “...do not stake everything on argumentation.... It is true that defense of the truth, and hence also argumentation, which is part of it, must continue in the church together with other things instituted to build it up.... Nevertheless, I adhere to the splendidly demonstrated assertion of our sainted Arndt in his True Christianity, ‘Purity of doctrine and of the Word of God is maintained not only by disputation and writing many books but also by true repentance and holiness of life’.”