A STUDY OF ROMAN CATHOLIC DOCTRINE IN LIGHT OF THE BIBLE
Daniel W. Petty
v Lesson One: The Roman Catholic Concept Of The Church
v Lesson Two: The Roman Catholic Priesthood In Light Of The Bible
v Lesson Four: The Doctrine Of Papal Infallibility
v Lesson Five: The Catholic Concept Of Divine Authority: Scripture, Tradition, And The Magisterium
v Lesson Six: The Roman Catholic Sacraments
v Lesson Seven: Purgatory And Indulgences
v Lesson Eight: The Catholic Doctrine Of The Virgin Mary
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CONCEPT OF THE CHURCH
INTRODUCTION.
Crucial to an understanding of the Catholic system of doctrine is a clear understanding of the Catholic concept of the church. In this lesson we will identify seven key principles that define the Catholic concept. Each principle is related to the others and in some sense builds on those that go before. Later lessons will lead us into more detailed study of many of these principles.
I. CATHOLICITY
A. "Catholic" means "universal". (CCC 830) Two senses:
1. Because Christ is present in the church
2. Because sent to the whole human race
B. Each particular local church is catholic "insofar as they are united to their pastors..." (CCC 832)
C. "A community of the Christian faithful in communion of faith and sacraments with their bishop ordained in apostolic succession" (CCC 833)
D. "Particular Churches are fully catholic through their communion with one of them, the Church of Rome 'which presides in charity'."(CCC 834, 837)
II. APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION
A. Founded upon the apostles in 3 ways, including continued guidance by the apostles through their successors, the bishops, priests, and pope (CCC 857).
B. Based on the promise to remain with them always, Matt. 28:20 (CCC 860)
C. Bishops are successors of the apostles (CCC 861)
D. Bishops take the place of the apostles as pastors (CCC 862)
E. History of the Theory of Apostolic Succession: began as a 3rd c. response to gnostic heresy.
1. The debate finally came down to the authority of the church. Against the gnostics, their claim to secret messages and teachers, the church claimed to be in possession of the original gospel and the true teachings of Jesus.
2. They argued that if Jesus had had any secret teaching, He would have passed it through His apostles, or the successors of the apostles. The doctrine arose that the bishops were the successors--"apostolic succession." Since all the bishops unanimously denied any such secret teaching, the gnostic claim must be false.
3.
Apostolic succession strengthened by claim of some of
the most ancient churches that they had lists of bishops linking them with the
apostles. (
4. The development of episcopacy went through several stages.
a) At first, a plurality of bishops (presbyters, pastors) in each church (autonomous).
b) Early in 2nd century, Clement and Ignatius refer to bishops, etc. Clement seems still to recognize "bishops and deacons" in the churches. Also in the Didache.
c) Ignatius first to distinguish between bishop (one), the presbyters, and the deacons. Perhaps still a college of leaders seen as equals, but still distinguished.
d)
By end of 2nd century, the bishop presides over the body
of presbyters. This is called the monarchical episcopate.
Irenaeus argues in Against Heresies that the bishop in each church is
a successor to the apostles. Thus, to be in the true Christian fellowship in
that place, must be right with the bishop. He also appealed to the church in
e)
Tertullian is an example of two extremes. First he
supported episcopacy, and unwittingly contributed to the tradition surrounding
f) Growth of episcopacy and heirarachy as bishops of large city churches gained prominence. They often assisted in starting new congregations, which came under their authority. AFter ca. 150, there were synods (meetings) of bishops. City bishops were prominent. Thus city bishops came to oversee the work of country bishops, which began to disappear.
III. SACERDOTALISM
A. Gradual development in the early centuries of the church led to increasing distinction of a priestly class. They did things for common christians they could not do for themselves, such as LS and baptism. These became the sole privilege of the bishop, ie, a specially ordained official.
B. The catholic church distinguished 3 distinct sacerdotal functions, or functions of the priesthood, which in effect make the church through its priesthood a mediator between man and God.
1. Teaching or prophetic function (CCC 888) -- makes the church the sole custodian of truth
2. Sanctifying or priestly function (CCC 893) -- makes the church the sole mediator of divine grace.
3. Governing or ruling function (CCC 894)
IV. INFALLIBILITY
A. In the teaching function, called the "Magisterium", the church with its priesthood claims infallibility.
B. Pope is infallible in proclamations on faith and morals (CCC 891).
C. Body of bishops likewise infallible (CCC 890)
D. Thus the church insofar as it adheres to the church of Rome and the pope, is infallible. They are the sole custodians of truth.
E. This concept includes the Doctrine of Development.
V. SACRAMENTALISM
A. Seven sacraments are signs, instruments, or channels of divine grace. Through them grace is dispensed through the whole body (CCC 774)
B. The church is thus called a "sacrament". It is a channel or instrument of grace -- ie, no grace without the church (CCC 775-776)
C. Thus no salvation outside the church (CCC 846)
VI. AUTHORITY
A. The church in its governing function has absolute authority (CCC 894-95)
VII. INSTITUTIONAL/HIERARCHICAL
A. The church is both visible and spiritual. "A visible organization through which he communicates truth and grace to all men" (CCC 771). "A society structured with hierarchical organs."
B. The end of persecutions under Constantine (312), his "conversion" and his favoring of Christianity above all other religions led to a development of catholic hierarchical along lines parallel to the Roman Empire. The geographical divisions of the empire were used for the organization of the church.
1. Parishes -- districts served by neighborhood chruches; served by priests (2179)
2. Dioceses or sees -- each one governed by a bishop; consist of parish churches in a region. About 2000 of them (833, 1560)
3. Provinces -- jurisdiction consisting of several dioceses; about 500.
4. Archdiocese -- principal diocese in a province; governed by archbishop (887)
5.
Apostolic See --
C. The hierarchy of offices, starting at the top, is as follows:
1.
Pope, bishop of
2. Patriarchs -- title of bishop, second only to pope; they oversee certain large jurisdictions.
3. Archbishops
4. Bishops
5. Priests--mostly serve in parish churches; pastoring and administering sacraments, esp, Mass and penance.
6. Deacons -- assisting priests with sacraments, preaching and parish administration; can perform sacraments of baptism and marriage, but not Mass or confessions.
D.
Curia Romana is the organization at
1. College of Cardinals -- these are usually ordained bishops who serve the pope as his top advisors and administrators. They make up a supreme senate of the church. There is a papal secretary who acts as the pope's "prime minister". If the pope dies or resigns, the cardinals elect the next pope.
2. Roman Congregations -- each one headed by a prefect and composed of cardinals. Administrative and disciplinary powers.
3. Holy Offices -- discharge the ordinary routine business of the church.
4. Tribunals -- Assemblies of cardinals and prelates who deal with judicial matters.
E. Religious institutions -- brothers and sisters (nuns); education, health care, social welfare, administration, and missions.
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 19-42
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 748-856 (pp. 214-247)
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIESTHOOD IN LIGHT OF THE BIBLE
I. THE CATHOLIC CONCEPT OF THE PRIESTHOOD
A. Catholics have a separate, distinct order of priests.
1. While acknowledging that all Christians have a share in the royal priesthood of Christ, they assert that "the sacramental character of the ordained priest makes him a sharer in a special way in Christ's priestly office and equips him with the sacramental powers and authority to carry out Christ's priestly ministry of teaching, ruling, and sanctifying men" (New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Priest and Priesthood, Christian").
2. "Catholics...teach that the priestly office and ministry has been entrusted in a special way to a particular group within the Church, and that the rite by which they are invested is a true Sacrament that confers a special power and grace to equip them for their ministry. According to Catholic teaching this ministry is both sacrificial, or cultic, and pastoral" (New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Priest and Priesthood, Christian").
B. Catholics argue that not only did the Apostles and their successors have a pastoral function, but also a sacrificial ministry. The Council of Trent in its decree on the Mass, stated that Christ ordained the Apostles priests at the Last Supper, adding "By the words 'Do this in commemoration of me, etc.' as the Catholic Church has always understood and taught, He commanded them and their successors in the priesthood to offer His sacrifice."
1. As
the New Catholic Encyclopedia says, "
2. There is nothing, however, in the accounts of the institution of the Lord's Supper to suggest either that the Supper was a sacrifice or that the Apostles were ordained as priests.
3. The Lord's Supper was to be a perpetual memorial feast; thus Jesus said, "Do this in memory of me..." (Matt. 26:26f; Mk. 14:22f; Lk. 22:14f; 1 Cor. 11:17f).
C. They further distinguish between the presbyter or priest, and the bishop. "The presbyter or priest of the second grade is to assist the bishop" ("Priest and Priesthood").
1. Justification is often found in Moses' selection of 70 elders to assist him in leading the people in the wilderness in Numbers 11:16).
2. But the New Testament makes no distinction between bishops (episcopoi) and elders (presbyteros). Nor are presbyters ever called priests (hierus).
3. The New Testament makes no distinction between "clergy" and "laity".
II. THE THEORY OF APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION
A. There are two senses in which Catholics describe the apostolic office: 1) the mission of founding the church and 2) the mission of governing and preserving the church.
1. The mission of founding the church
a) Extraordinary
b) Temporary
c) Personal
d) Exclusive
e) Equality among all apostles
f) Consisted of two things: the complete revelation of divine truth, and the building up of the church according to the design Christ had drawn for them.
g) This mission ceased with the apostles (no succession).
2. The mission of maintaining, ruling, and ministering to the church
a) Each apostle was built upon Peter.
b) As new churches were established, they came under supervision of Peter.
c) Since there is a need of sacraments to the end of time, and since apostles were dispensers of sacraments, it follows they needed successors.
d) This distinction of missions is arbitrary, without any scriptural foundation.
B. The bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.
1. "In order that the full and living Gospel might always be preserved in the Church the apostles left bishops as their successors. They gave them 'their own position of teaching authority'" (CCC 77).
2. "The Church teaches that 'the bishops have by divine institution taken the place of the apostles as pastors of the Church, in such wise that whoever listens to them is listening to Christ and whoever despises them despises Christ and him who sent Christ'" (CCC 861-862).
3. When Christ instituted the Twelve, "he constituted them in the form of a college or permanent assembly...so in like fashion the Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, and the bishops, the successors of the apostles, are related with and united to one another" (CCC 880).
C. The priestly or sacerdotal function of the bishops is handed down to the priests.
1. Apostolic succession "structures the whole liturgical life of the Church and is itself sacramental, hand on by the sacrament of the Holy Spirit (CCC 1087).
2. "The function of the bishops' ministry was handed over in a subordinate degree to priests so that they might be appointed in the order of the priesthood and be co-workers of the episcopal order for the proper fulfillment of the apostolic mission that had been entrusted to it by Christ" (CCC 1562).
3. "The priest is the man of God, the minister of God.... He that despiseth the priest despiseth God; he that hears him hears God. The priest remits sins as God, and that which he calles his body at the altar is adored as God by himself and by the congregation.... It is clear that their function is such that none greater can be conceived. Wherefore they are justly called not only angels, but also God, holding as they do among us the power and authority of the immortal God" (Council of Trent).
D. The bishops inherited three offices or powers by succession.
1. The teaching office
a) "Bishops, with priests as co-workers, have as their first task 'to preach the Gospel of God to all men'" (CCC 888; cf. 77)
b) They alone are authorized to give an "authentic interpretation of the Word of God, whether in its written form or in the form of Tradition" (CCC 85, 100).
2. The sanctifying office
a) "Bishop and priests sanctify the Church by their prayer and work, by their ministry of the word and of the sacraments" (CCC 893).
b) Bishops and priests must be ordained by bishops through the sacrament of Holy Orders (CCC 1559, 1575-76).
c) Bishops oversee the administration of the sacraments. "The bishop of the place is always responsible for the Eucharist, even when a priest presides..." (CCC 1369).
3. The ruling office
a) Bishops have power to govern the church (CCC 893-896).
b) "Let all follow the bishop, as Jesus Christ follow his father, and the college of presbyters as the apostles; respect the deacons as you do God's law. Let no one do anything concerning the Church in separation from the bishop" (Ignatius of Antioch, in CCC 896).
E. All authority of the priesthood exists only in union with the pope (CCC 880-884).
F. Catholic arguments used in support of apostolic succession.
1. Indefectibility of the Church
a) It is argued from Matthew 16:18 that apostolic succession is necessary that the church might stand against the forces of Hell. They reason that for the Church to prevail until the end of time, the power of Peter and other apostles to teach, sanctify, and rule must also continue to the end. The mission of Peter and his successors is thus "to keep this faith from every lapse and to strengthen his brothers in it" (CCC 552).
b) However, Matthew 16:18 teaches nothing about apostolic succession. Jesus promised to build his church and that the gates of Hades would not prevail against it. This refers to his resurrection (cf. Acts 2:30-31, He was not abandoned to Hades).
2. The Great Commission
a) Roman Catholics argue from Matthew 28:20 that in order for Jesus to be with the apostles to the end of the age, they had to have successors (CCC 860).
b) There is nothing in this passage even to suggest what Catholic doctrine assumes; Jesus promised nothing regarding bishops or succession. Jesus was promising to be with his disciples always in their work of "making disciples" (Matt. 28:19).
3. Entrust to faithful men
a) 2 Timothy 2:2 is used to argue that Timothy was to pass on the apostolic powers to others, as he had supposedly received them from Paul by the laying on of hands (1 Tim. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6). As such Timothy would be ordaining bishops, who would do the same for others.
b) "...by the imposition of hands they [apostles] passed on to their auxiliaries the gift of the Spirit, which is transmitted down to our day through episcopal consecration (CCC 861-862).
c) These
passages talk about Timothy receiving a "spiritual gift" (1 Tim.
4. Timothy and Titus
a) Catholics claim that Paul ordained Timothy as bishop of Ephesus and Titus as Bishop of Crete (cf. CCC 1590). They observe that Timothy and Titus received the mandate from Paul to exercise the ministry of teaching (1 Tim. 4:6, 11-16; et al.); of governing the churches (1 Tim. 5; Titus 1:5; et al.); of appointing elders and deacons (1 Tim. 3; Titus 1) (see New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Apostolic Succession").
b) However, the NT never identifies Timothy or Titus as bishops. They were fellow workers with Paul (1 Cor. 16:10, 16; 2 Cor. 8:23). Each of them was instructed by Paul to appoint elders; to that end the qualifications of such men are given in both epistles (1 Tim. 3:1f; Titus 1:5f).
G. Arguments against apostolic succession.
1. The NT never teaches that the apostles ruled the universal church. Christ is the head of the church (Col. 1:18).
2. The work of sanctification is never spoken of as a work of the apostles. It is a work of God, not men (Eph. 5:26; 1 Thess. 5:23; 2 Thess. 2:13).
3. The teaching of the apostles helped form the foundation of the church (Eph. 2:20). Since that foundation has been laid, the unique teaching office of the apostles is no longer needed.
4. The Catholic Church does not appeal to Acts 1:15-26, the choosing of Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot as one of the Twelve, to substantiate its claims to apostolic succession. They do not believe that the bishops are new apostles, but that they are their successors. The passage does prove, however, that for one to succeed and apostle, he must be a witness of Christ's resurrection. This in itself would eliminate the possibility of apostolic succession beyond the first century.
III. THE PRIESTHOOD IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
A. The priestly function in the Old Testament
1. Distinguished from prophet (God's spokesman to people) and king (ruler of the people).
2. Mediator
a) Represented people before God, offered sacrifices, and interceded with God on their behalf.
b) Taught the law of God.
c) Inquired of God to learn His will.
B. Christ is now Prophet, Priest, and King.
1. He alone is our High Priest (Heb. 7:17, 24-27; 9:11f).
a) He offered Himself once for all.
b) Entered the heavenly sanctuary.
c) No more sacrifice is needed.
2. He
"sat down" in that He finished His work (Heb.
3. Christ is the only mediator between God and man (1 Tim. 2:5). This eliminates priests, bishops, pope, Mary, saints, etc.
4. Thus there is no more human priesthood as a distinct and separate order.
C. All Christians as saints are part of the priesthood of all believers.
1. A royal priesthood (1 Pet. 2:5, 9)
2. A kingdom of priests (Rev. 1:5-6; 5:9-10)
3. As
members of a royal priesthood, we have no earthly mediator. We have access to
God (Eph.
D. Spiritual sacrifices of the royal priesthood
1. Praise
and thanksgiving to God (Heb.
2. Doing
good and sharing with others (Heb.
3. Our bodies as a living and holy sacrifice (Rom. 12:1)
E. Other scriptural fallacies of the Catholic priesthood
1. "Priest" (hierus) is applied only to Christ. It is never used of an elder (presbyteros).
2. Peter referred to himself as one of many elders (presbyteros), but not as a priest or pope (1 Pet. 5:1-3).
3. It is a return to Judaism.
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 43-74
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 857-913, 1537-1600 (pp. 247-262, 427-446)
THE PAPACY
I. CATHOLIC CLAIMS ABOUT THE POPE
A. The Pope, the Bishop of Rome, is regarded as the head of the college of bishops. "The college or body of bishops has no authority unless united with the Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, as its head" (CCC 883).
B. The Pope, "as Vicar of Christ, and as pastor of the entire Church has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered" (CCC 882). He enjoys "supreme, full, immediate, and universal power in the care of souls" (CCC 937).
C. The Pope is regarded as the successor of Peter. Papal authority has its roots in the doctrine of the primacy of Peter--that Peter was first among the apostles and the ruler of the Church--and in the doctrine of apostolic succession.
1. "We teach and declare that, according to the gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the lord" (Vatican I).
2. "Simon Peter holds the first place in the college of the Twelve; Jesus entrusted a unique mission to him" (CCC 552, 765, 862).
3. Catholics seek biblical support for this doctrine in Matthew 16:18, 19; Luke 22:32; and John 21:15-17. We will examine these passages later.
4. Catholicism
claims that Peter became the first bishop of
5. The
special power entrusted to Peter is passed on by succession to the bishop of
D. "The Catholic Church teaches that our Lord conferred on St. Peter the first place of honor and jurisdiction in the government of His whole church, and that the same spiritual supremacy has always resided in the popes, or bishops of Rome, as being the successors of St. Peter. Consequently, to be true followers of Christ all Christians, both among the clergy and laity, must be in communion with the See of Rome, where Peter rules in the person of his successor" (Cardinal Gibbons, Faith of our Fathers, 95).
E. "The pope takes the place of Jesus Christ on earth... He is the true Vicar of Christ, the head of the entire church... He is the infallible ruler..., the universal ruler of truth, the arbiter of the world, the supreme judge of heaven and earth, the judge of all, being judged by no one, God himself on earth" (New York Catechism).
F. Catholics speak of a visible and an invisible head. The visible head, the pope, has a juridical function, to rule the organized, visible body on earth.
II. HISTORICAL ARGUMENT
A. The Catholic Church argues that Christ made Peter the head of the apostles and the Church. The apostles ordained bishops to be their successors, who submitted to Peter as their head. Peter became the first Bishop of Rome, establishing that city as the apostolic see.
1. Catholics argue that there is an historical continuity of succession from Peter to the present pope. But this cannot be sustained.
a) Little
is known about any bishops of
b) Lists presented by Catholics have gone through repeated revisions, the lasted in 1947.
c) And
what about the
2. They
cite the opinions of some early church "fathers" such as Ignatius of
Antioch and Irenaeus to argue that from the beginning all churches have
historically held to
3. These claims, however, cannot be substantiated from history.
a) There
is no evidence that Peter was bishop of
b) There
is no clear proof that Peter was ever in
c) There is no evidence that Peter ruled the universal church.
d) There is no evidence of Peter or any of the apostles having a successor.
e) There
is no evidence in the NT period that
B. A
study of history actually shows that the development of the papacy was a
gradual development that occurred over about five centuries as a result of
several factors. There were two major phases in this development: 1) a special
prestige came to be associated with the city and church at
1. Factors
in the growth of
a) Rome's historic position in the empire (their political importance, location, and wealth)
b) The
church in
c) There
was a tradition that both Peter and Paul were martyred in
d) Constantine's
"conversion" in 312 further helped
e) The
move of the imperial capital to
2. Factors in the development of theories about the Bishop of Rome
a) Doctrine of apostolic succession. By end of second century some began trying to identify historical succession of bishops back to beginning.
b) Development of Petrine Doctrine
(1) In
the third century, Tertullian used apostolic succession to argue that Peter was
(2) Stephen
(bp. 254-257), bishop of
c) In
fourth century, Damasus (bp. 366-384), bishop of
d) In
fifth century, Leo I "the Great" (Bp. 440-461) boosted his position
by providing leadership for the city against the barbarian invasions. Leo
sought more than any before him to back up his position of authority with
theory and doctrine. Using all three traditional passages, he asserted that the
whole church "ever find Peter in Peter's See." Appealing to Roman
law, he argued that his authority included the whole church and that other
bishops received their authority through him. The power and prerogatives of the
bishop of
e) Gregory I "the great" (p. 590-604) is generally regarded as the first pope. He was first to apply the title to himself.
III. ARGUMENTS FROM SCRIPTURE
A. The Catholics make several basic assumptions which must be proved from scripture regarding the pope.
1. That Peter was the chief of the apostles
2. That Peter was vicar of Christ and head of the church
3. That the apostles have successors, the bishops.
4. That the pope is Peter's successor.
B. The
Catholics appeal to Matthew 16:18 to argue that the church was "built on
Peter.... Because of the faith he confessed Peter will remain the unshakeable
rock of the Church. His mission will be to keep this faith from every lapse and
to strengthen his brothers in it" (CCC 552). They maintain that the rock
on which the church is built is Peter. The argument hinges on the use of words:
"You are Peter (petros), and upon this rock (
1. Though
the grammar of the verse alone cannot settle the question, it argues strongly
against the Catholic position. Petros, Peter's name, is masculine
gender and refers to a boulder, detached stone or pebble.
2. The context of Matthew 16:18 is against the Catholic position. The theme: "Who is Jesus?" Peter by revelation correctly answered the question, and Christ then said upon this rock I will build my church. "This" is a demonstrative adjective that can either refer to something grammatically or the idea under discussion. The context favors the latter. The rock was the content of Peter's declaration that "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God."
3. "If we trace the figurative use of the word rock through Hebrew Scripture, we find that it is never used symbolically of man, but always of God" (G. Campbell Morgan, The Gospel According to Matthew, 211). Thus, see 1 Sam. 2:2, Psalm 18:31, Isaiah 44:8, et al.
4. The
Bible uses
a) Foundation
for building (Matt.
b) Large rocks split at Christ's crucifixion (Matt. 27:51)
c) Rock
out of which burial tomb was hewn (Matt. 27:60; Mk.
d) Ledge of rock on which seed fell (Lk. 8:6, 13)
e) Christ from which the Israelites drank (1 Cor. 10:4)
f)
Christ, a rock of offense (Rom.
g) Huge rocks (Rev. 6:15, 16)
5. The rest of the Bible makes it clear that the bedrock or foundation of the church is Christ:
a) `
Isaiah
b) Isaiah 28:16 -- Messiah the foundation to be laid
c) 1
Corinthians
d) Ephesians 2:19-21 -- Christ the chief cornerstone of the foundation laid by the apostles and prophets
6. There was no "unanimous consent of the father" on this subject as the Catholic Church maintains. Augustine and Jerome, among others, understood the "rock" to be Christ, not Peter. "Launio, the eminent Gallican, found but seventeen of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church (among whom he reckons 'fathers' down to the twelfth century) who understand St. Peter to be 'the rock' and he cites forty of the contrary opinion. Yet of the 'seventeen', most of them speak only rhetorically, and with justifiable freedom" (Ante-Nicene Fathers V:561, Elucidations VII).
C. Catholics argue from Matthew 16:19 that when Jesus promised to give to him the "keys of the kingdom", he was giving him "authority to govern the house of God, which is the Church" (CCC 553). Specifically, "the words bind and loose mean: whomever you exclude from your communion, will be excluded from communion with God; whomever you receive anew into your communion, God will welcome back into his" (CCC 1444-45).
1. The
authority to bind and loose not given exclusively to Peter, but to all the
apostles (cf. Matt.
2. The
keys of the kingdom meant that Christ gave to the apostles a "declaratory
power" or the authority to announce the terms of salvation (Boettner 110).
Peter and other apostles used the keys of the kingdom when they preached the
gospel to Jews on Pentecost (Acts 2), to Samaritans (Acts 8), and to Gentiles
(Acts 10). Through Peter and Paul God "opened a door of faith to the
Gentiles" (Acts
3. A comparison with Matthew 18:18 gives evidence that the authority of binding and loosing means that as long as disciples followed Christ's instructions regarding preaching the gospel or administering discipline, God ratifies it in heaven.
4. There is no scripture to suggest that Christ gave Peter supreme authority over the church or apostles. Only Christ is he "that openeth and none shall shut, and that shutteth and none openeth" (Rev. 3:7).
D. John 21:15-17 is used to argue that Christ appointed Peter to be the supreme pastor of the church (CCC 553).
1. Elders
(pastors, bishops) of a local church are to shepherd (feed, tend) the flock
(Acts
2. Peter was a "fellow elder", not supreme shepherd (1 Pet. 5:1).
3. Christ is the "Chief Shepherd" (1 Pet. 5:4).
E. Luke
F. Peter's supremacy is also based on the following:
1. Prominence of Peter in Acts 1-12. The sequence of events explains it.
2. Peter's name appears first in lists of apostles (Matt. 10:2-4; Mk. 3:16-19; Lk. 6:14-16). But see Galatians 2:6-9.
3. Peter was the spokesman for the apostles. But see Matthew 16:21-23.
4. The
Lord appeared to Peter first. Not really (Mk. 16:9-11; Jn.
5. Peter wrote two NT books. But Paul wrote 13.
6. Peter
was the leader at the meeting in
7. First miracle after establishment of the church.
8. Preached the first sermon at establishment of the church.
9. First to preach to Gentiles.
10. Took lead and did speaking on occasion of Matthias.
11. When James and Peter were imprisoned the church prayed for Peter.
12. Peter, James, and John were allowed experiences with Christ that no others had. Peter's name in these is always mentioned first.
13. Peter's name was changed.
14. Paul attached significance to fact that he was taught by Peter.
G. Notice how a case for the primacy of Paul could be based on similar reasoning:
1. Paul was a bachelor and thus would meet the requirements for the celibacy of the clergy.
2. Paul is the apostle to the Gentiles as Peter was to the Jews. Since Gentiles are the more numerous group, Paul would be supreme.
3. Acts devotes far more space to Paul than to any other individual (chs. 13-28).
4. Paul
was not behind the chiefest apostle (2 Cor. 11:5;
5. Paul did not recognize Peter's primacy and stated that he gained nothing from being with him (Gal. 2:6-10).
6. Paul
withstood Peter when he was in error (Gal.
7. Paul's
labors were more abundant (2 Cor.
8. Paul
had the care of all the churches (2 Cor.
9. Three-fourths of the NT written by Paul.
10. Peter
appealed to Paul (2 Pet.
11. Scripture
testifies that Paul was in
H. The Catholic claim of Peter's primacy and authority is further disproved by the following facts:
1. Peter did not claim superiority, but rather placed himself as a fellow elder who should not lord it over the flock (1 Pet. 5:1-4).
2. Peter
refused to accept homage from men (Acts
3. Paul
never acknowledged Peter as having superior authority than himself (2 Cor.
I.
That Peter was bishop of
1. Paul's
letter to the Romans, written in late 50s AD, was not addressed to Peter, nor
did it mention him, even though greetings were sent to 27 others by name (ch.
16). Paul wanted to impart some spiritual gift to them in order that they might
be established (
2. The
"prison epistles" written during Paul's first Roman imprisonment in
3. Peter
is not mentioned in 2 Timothy, written during Paul's second Roman imprisonment
in late 60s (cf. 2 Tim.
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 104-131
THE DOCTRINE OF PAPAL INFALLIBILITY
I.
I. THE DOCTRINE DEFINED AND EXPLAINED
A. "...We teach and define that it is a dogma divinely revealed that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme Apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith and morals to be held by the universal Church, by the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, is possessed of that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer willed that His Church should be endowed for defining doctrines regarding faith and morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff of themselves--and not by virtue of the consent of the Church--are irreformable" (First Vatican Council, 1870).
B. "The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful--who confirms his brethren in the faith--he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals" (CCC 891).
C. Assumption: that men should know the truth through the living, infallible voice of the church, "the pillar and bulwark of the truth" (CCC 2032).
D. By infallibility they mean that God neither reveals new truth nor inspires but assists.
E. It is said to be a charism, a gift bestowed on the church (CCC 890).
F. Scope of infallibility
1. Ex cathedra means speaking "from the chair" of authority, and means speaking in his official capacity as head of the church. Infallibility is not claimed for every statement made.
2. Matters of faith and morals. It is concerned with what men must believe and do in order to be saved. It "extends as far as does the deposit of divine Revelation; it also extends to all those elements of doctrine, including morals, without which the saving truths of the faith cannot be preserved, explained, or observed" (CCC 2035).
3. The pronouncement must be intended as binding on the whole church.
II. HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE
A. The doctrine of infallibility was even more gradual in its development than that of the papacy.
B. The "fathers" of the church taught the sufficiency of the Scripture, and never taught the doctrine of infallibility as applied to pope or bishops.
1. Basil (330-379) appealed to Hebrews 9:16, 17 to prove that the Bible is to have nothing added or subtracted.
2. Augustine (354-430) used Galatians 1:8, 9 to show that no one is to teach anything other than the New Testament or what was delivered by the apostles.
3. Cyprian (d. 258), in conflict with Stephen of Rome, said one must depend on what is written to determine the apostles' doctrine. One must go to the source.
4. Jerome (340-420) said the written things were to be accepted and those not written rejected. He said the God of heaven smites all those who would bind tradition that does not have Scriptural authority.
C. During the middle ages, opinions differed on whether ultimate authority and infallibility resided with the pope or with a general council of the church.
1. Ecumenical councils throughout history were called to settle theological issues.
2. Many powerful popes of middle ages, such as Gregory VII and Innocent III, exercised near absolute authority both in practice and theory, though there was no doctrine of infallibility. Beginning with Boniface VIII, temporal power of the pope gradually declined.
3. Several popes in history expressly disclaimed the attribute of infallibility, including Vigilius, Innocent III, Clement IV, Gregory XI, Hadrian VI, and Paul IV.
4. Councils
of
5. During the Avignon Papacy (1307-77) and Great Schism (1377-1417), conciliarists argued strongly that authority belonged with a council. But popes generally resisted.
6. As
a result of the Protestant Reformation, the Council of
D. The
pontificate of Pius IX (p. 1846-1878) marks the end of the temporal, political
power of the popes. On
1. In 1854 Pius, in the bull Ineffabilis, proclaimed the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, thus indirectly affirming his infallibility. He was the first pope ever to define a doctrine on his own, without the support of a council.
2. In 1864 Pius issued the encyclical Quanta cura, accompanied by a Syllabus of Errors listing 80 propositions that Catholics must reject. It condemned rationalism, socialism, liberalism, etc.
3. In 1869 Pius called the First Vatican Council. The doctrine of papal infallibility was promulgated by the council in 1870 in Pastor aeternus.
E. Effects of the doctrine.
1. Many Catholics, led by the German theologian Dollinger, opposed the doctrine. In 1871 a minority group formed the "Old Catholic"Church.
2. The Council in effect abdicated its power and virtually eliminated the need for future councils, other than for superfluous purposes.
III. SOME OBJECTIONS TO PAPAL INFALLIBILITY
A. The assumptions of infallibility are unfounded:
1. That Christ willed that men should learn truth through the living, infallible voice of the church.
2. The primacy of Peter.
3. Apostolic succession.
B. If "passive infallibility" keeps the church from believing error, then what about the infallibility of the pope before 1870?
C. The doctrine involves circular reasoning: it really demands personal infallibility or one would not know whether he had the right thing. Infallibility is supposed to do away with private judgment but it cannot. How does one decide to yield to the pope? It is by private judgment. Scripture is quoted to prove that the church is infallible and the fact that the church is infallible is used to say that the Scripture should be so interpreted. See Salmon, Infallibility of the Church, 47-61.
D. Who is going to interpret the infallible pronouncement? Is not one just as capable of interpreting the Bible as he is a pope's declaration? We are told that the Bible is infallible but that it is not an infallible guide. They tell us that it does not protect one from going wrong whereas the infallible pope does. But the pope guides by teaching in human language; the same danger inheres when reading his pronouncements as when reading the Bible. Who will tell one what the interpretation of the interpretation of the pope is? What guarantee does one have that a decree of an infallible pope will be understood while the infallible Bible will not?
E. If Peter were a pope, then what prevents us from interpreting his writings as they are?
F. How is anyone to know whether any given pronouncement is ex cathedra and therefore infallible? Why doesn't the pope speak ex cathedra any time he speaks on matters of doctrine? Failure to do so leaves the church without its infallible guide that is supposedly so essential, in some of the most trying times when that guide is sorely needed.
G. Ex cathedra announcements have to be by decree of councils. Who has infallibility?
H. The procedure followed by the pope is to consult with theologians or bishops, who make a study of the subject to report to him. If the pope has infallibility, why consult with those who are subject to error?
I. Infallibility is not used consistent with Catholic claims and when it is really needed. Supposedly, infallibility is for the purpose of guarding the faithful against error for the church is said to pass judgment on the truth. Notice what the belief really demands:
1. Private judgment is condemned by the so-called infallible church, but there has not been published an authorized commentary of the Scripture in which there is no error. Why not give everyone the unanimous consent of the fathers on interpretation of Scripture?
2. All catechisms should be free from error but they are not, according the church herself. Keenan's Catechism, published with high ecclesistical approbation, stated that the belief that the pope was infallible was a Protestant invention and not an article of the Catholic faith (see Salmon, Infallibility of the Church, 26). If the catechism is for the purpose of instructing in faith and morals, shouldn't there be the guarantee of infallibility?
3. The people should be in a position to be guided by an infallible power daily, but such is not the case. The priest is not infallible; the pope is not infallible in every instance. The Catholic in nearly every case is not benefitted by infallibility.
4. If infallibility resides in the Catholic Church, then she should act accordingly. But we see disputes, divisions, and contentions occurring almost daily within the Catholic fold. Why doesn't the pope intervene and settle these disputes that truth may be upheld and not person is led astray.
5. The belief also demands that through the centuries no belief or practice of the church be contradictory to any other.
J. Some infallible authority must have declared the pope to be infallible but this was a council. Who is infallible? A council or the pope? or both? If the pope is infallible then the Catholic Church is infallible for some power declared that the pope possessed infallibility. Some Catholics affirm that the Catholic Church is infallible and that the pope is rendered such because he is the visible head of the church.
K. Catholics tell us that protestant divisions could be eliminated if they accepted an infallible church. If true, why did not the church stop or prevent the great division between Roman and Greek churches?
L. The
church is not the measure of the truth, nor is the pope. The Bible is the
infallible guide (2 Peter
IV. ERRORS AND CONTRADICTIONS OF POPES
A. The Sixtus Bible was published in 1590 after the Council of Trent ordered a correct edition of the Vulgate be published. Sixtus V issued the the text now called the "error-burdened" text. He affirmed that the edition was fully authoritative and was so approved by the authority given him by the Lord. He said that the edition should be received and held as true, authentic, and unquestioned. Every precaution was taken to insure accuracy, proof positive that he believed in the authority of the text. Because of the more than 2000 mistakes in it, the theologians decided to replace it with another edition. Which one was authentic?
B. Popes Paul V (1605-1621) and Urban VIII (1623-1644) condemned the heliocentric theories of Galileo and Copernicus in its Index of Prohibited Books. The Church said their belief was contrary to all that was divine. Cardinal Bellarmine told Galileo his theory was philosophically false and formally heretical because it was expressly contrary to scripture (Salmon, Infallibility of the Church, 235).
C. Liberius,
bishop of
D. Zosimus (417-418) pronouced Pelagius an orthodox teacher and instructed the African bishops who had condemned Pelagius not to be too hasty in condemning. Zosimus later reversed his position and agreed with Augustine. The Council of Ephesus agreed with Augustine and the African bishops. When did Zosimus possess infallibility?
E. Vigilius (537-553) refused to condemn heretical teachers of the monophysite doctrine and resisted the Second Council of Constantinople in 553. Threatened with excommunication, Vigilius finally submitted to the Council and confessed he had been a tool of Satan. When did he possess infallibility?
F. Honorius (625-638) taught the heresy of Monothelitism in two letters. Honorius and his opinion were condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 680 and later by the Council of Nicea in 787 and by the Council of Constantinople in 869. This was a matter of faith. Who was infallible, the councils or the pope?
G. Hadrian II (867-872) declared civil marriages valid, while Pius VII (1800-1823) condemned them as invalid. Which is to be believed? Which pope was infallible?
H. Eugene IV (1431-1447) condemned Joan of Arc as a witch, which Benedict XV in 1919 declared her to be a saint. Which pronouncement was infallible?
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 235-253
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2030-2040 (pp. 545-548)
Creeds of Christendom, II:211-271
Salmon, George, The Infallibility of the Church
THE CATHOLIC CONCEPT OF DIVINE AUTHORITY:
SCRIPTURE, TRADITION, AND THE MAGISTERIUM
A. THE REVELATION OF TRUTH
II. Roman Catholicism teaches that "Christ, the Son of God made man, is the Father's one, perfect, and unsurpassable Word. In him he has said everything; there will be no other word than this one" (CCC 65). Thus it said that God's revelation originated in Christ, and that Christ was God's final revelation (CCC 75). The Second Vatican Council declared that "no new public revelation is to be expected before the glorious manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ" (CCC 66, 73).
III. They further state, however, "Yet even if Revelation is already complete, it has not been made completely explicit; it remains for Christian faith gradually to grasp its full significance over the course of the centuries" (CCC 66).
IV. The Catholic Church teaches that the gospel has been "transmitted to all generations" (CCC 74) in two ways:
1. "In writing 'by those apostles and other man associated with the apostles who, under the inspiration of the same Holy Spirit, committed the message of salvation to writing'" (CCC 76). This is Scripture (CCC 81).
2. "Orally "...by the spoken word of their preaching, by the example they gave, by the institutions they established...'" (CCC 76). This is called Tradition. This form of revelation has been handed down from the apostles to their successors, the bishops (CCC 81).
3. Since both the transmission and interpretation of revealed truth is entrusted to the Church, she "does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honored with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence" (CCC 82).
4. Catholic
thought represents divine revelation as a pool or "divine
well-spring" from which flow two streams that come together to form
"one thing" (CCC 80). Scripture and Tradition together constituted the
word of God, or the "Sacred deposit" (cf. 2 Tim.
V. II. THE CHURCH'S MAGISTERIUM
A. Roman Catholicism teaches that God has appointed the Church, through her bishops in communion with the pope, as teachers of the faith. The official teaching authority of the Church is called the Magisterium. See CCC 85-90, 168-171, 2032-2040, 2049-2051.
1. The Second Vatican Council declared, "The task of giving an authentic interpretation of the Word of God, whether in its written form or in the form of Tradition, has been entrusted to the living, teaching office of the Church alone" (CCC 85).
2. This Magisterium is viewed as the servant of the Word of God. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the Magisterium of the church is to guard and teach only what is handed down from the deposit of faith, according to 1 Tim. 6:20 and 2 Tim. 1:12-14 (CCC 86).
3. Thus,
the teaching of the bishops is to be accepted as if from Christ, as taught in
Luke
B. The Magisterium is considered an infallible rule of faith. It is the proximate rule, whereas the word of God, written or handed down by tradition, is the remote rule.
C. The authority of the Magisterium has to do with church dogmas--matters of faith and morals, as opposed simply to discipline and practice. These may vary with time and place and are not considered to be part of Tradition (cf. CCC 83). But the Catholic Church claims that sacred dogmas do not change (CCC 84).
D. The belief in infallibility extends to the Magisterium of the Church and its task of giving an authentic interpretation of revealed truth (CCC 890-891).
1. "The whole body of the faithful...cannot err in matters of belief. This characteristic is shown in the supernatural appreciation of faith (sensus fidei) on the part of the whole people, when, 'from the bishops to the last of the faithful,' they manifest a universal consent in matters of faith and morals" (CCC 92).
2. The Holy Spirit guides the Church in its teaching authority so that "The People unfailingly adheres to this faith..." (CCC 79, 93).
E. Hence, even the Scripture is to interpreted in light of the "living Tradition of the whole Church" (CCC 113). Interpretation of Scripture is "ultimately subject to the judgment of the Church" (CCC 119).
F. Tradition, Scripture, and the Magisterium are all considered so connected and essential that one cannot stand apart from the others. "They all contribute effectively to the salvation of souls" (CCC 95).
VI. THE CATHOLIC VIEW OF SCRIPTURE
A. It is held to be inerrant (CCC 105-107).
B. It must not be interpreted contrary to the unanimous consent of the Fathers and the sense held by the church (CCC 85, 92, 113).
C. The Catholic Church includes in its canon of Scripture the apocrypha. These books were officially approved by the Council of Trent, in response to attacks from the Protestants (see Boettner, 80-87).
D. The
Latin Vulgate until modern times has been held to be the official and
infallible version of the Bible, according to
E. Historically, the Catholic Church has either prohibited or discouraged the laity from reading the Bible. It is not necessary or fitting for everyone (Boettner 96-101). This seems to have changed since Vatican II (CCC 131-133).
VII. THE CATHOLIC VIEW OF TRADITION
A. Properly speaking, Roman Catholics teach that Tradition is not a collection of doctrines and institutions in books or documents. Rather it is defined as "the living memorial of God's Word" (CCC 113). It is "written principally in the Church's heart rather than in documents and records" (CCC 113). Through Tradition, "the Church, in her doctrine, life, and worship perpetuates and transmits to every generation all that she is, all that she believes" (CCC 78).
B. Tradition has been divided into the three classes:
1. Divine traditions are those taught by Christ and passed on orally but not written.
2. Apostolic traditions are those taught by the apostles but not written.
3. Ecclesiastical traditions are those passed on through council pronouncements and papal decrees.
C. The truth of this Tradition is said to be preserved through apostolic succession and the Magisterium (CCC 77).
D. Tradition is expressed and witnessed to by various organs or instruments.
1. Decrees of bishops meeting in an ecumenical council are infallible and binding on all Catholics (CCC 88, 891). This is called the Extraordinary Magisterium.
2. Creeds of the Church are fundamental beliefs of the faith (CCC 185-192).
3. The teachings of the "Church Fathers" who lived during the first eight centuries are, according to the Second Vatican Council, a "witness" to the Tradition (CCC 78, 688). They are not considered to be infallible. However, "The value of the Fathers and Writers is this: that in the aggregate they demonstrate what the Church did and does yet believe and teach. In the aggregate they provide a witness to the content of Tradition, that Tradition which itself is a vehicle of revelation" (W. A. Jurgens, The Faith of the Early Fathers, 3: 359; qtd. in McCarthy, The Gospel According to Rome, 295-96).
4. The teachings of the "Doctors" of the Church are also considered to be witnesses to Tradition. These include such exceptional teachers as Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Aquinas, Bonaventure, et al. They are not considered to be infallible.
5. The official teaching of the bishops (catechisms, homilies, letters) is called the Ordinary Magisterium. This is the Church's official authority to teach and announce moral principles (CCC 2032-2035). The unanimous, common teaching of the bishops is considered to be an infallible guide to the faith (CCC 890).
6. The universal practice of the church, especially its liturgy is an expression of and witness to the Catholic faith, since it also requires the approval of the Magisterium (CCC 1069-1070).
7. The common consent and understanding of the faithful is an infallible guide to the Tradition. "The whole body of the faithful...cannot err in matters of belief. This characteristic is shown in the supernatural appreciation of faith (sensus fidei) on the part of the whole people, when, 'from the bishops to the last of the faithful,' they manifest a universal consent in matters of faith and morals" (CCC 91-92). Guided by the Holy Spirit through the Magisterium, "...The People unfailingly adheres to this faith, penetrates in more deeply with right judgment, and applies it more fully in daily life" (CCC 93).
VIII. OBJECTIONS
A. The Catholic concept of Tradition rests on the unproven assumptions of apostolic succession, that Christ instituted a living teaching authority, and that infallibility is a characteristic of the church.
B. The word "tradition" in the New Testament is paradosis, which means that which is handed down or over.
1. It is used of the Pharisaic traditions in Matt. 15:2 and Mark 7:5. Jesus did not recognize these human traditions as equal with scripture, but condemned those who allowed them to make void the word of God (cf. Matt. 15:1-9; Mk. 7:1-13).
2. Catholics cite 2 Thessalonians 2:15; 3:6; 1 Corinthians 11:2 as evidence that the tradition of the Catholic Church is equivalent to the oral teaching of the apostle Paul. But there is no evidence that the oral teaching was to be passed on unless written down. There is no reasonable comparison between Paul's teaching to the Thessalonians and Corinthians and the Catholic tradition.
C. Cardinal Bellarmine used John 20:30-31 to show the incompleteness of scripture, thus necessitating tradition. But the Church Fathers disagreed with him. Augustine said all was recorded that sufficed to the salvation of believers (Tract. in Joh., XLIX.1). Cyril says all amply sufficient to make the hearer believe was recorded (Liber in Johann. XII).
D. The argument for unwritten tradition is circular: they reason that they believe what is handed down and then argue that what is handed down must have been what was originally believed.
1. There is no evidence that what Catholics claim is tradition came from any apostle.
2. They cannot define accurately what is meant by tradition.
3. How do you separate the genuine from the erroneous?
E. The Catholic appeal to Scripture and Tradition as authority will not stand if followed to its logical conclusion. The claim is to apostolic tradition only. That would force them back to a period not later than about 150 AD. All would have to be written. Nothing after that time could be admitted.
F. History shows that about 400 years passed before any stress was placed on tradition. The fathers to whom appeal is made more unanimously agree on the all-sufficiency of Scripture than on any other point.
1. Basil (330-379) appealed to Hebrews 9:16-17 to prove that the Bible is to have nothing added or subtracted.
2. Augustine (354-430) used Galatians 1:8-9 to show that no one is to teach anything other than the New Testament or that delivered by the apostles.
3. Cyprian
(d. 258) in conflict with Stephen, bishop of
4. Augustine and Cyprian, though disagreeing on validity of heretical baptism, appealed to the same source--Scripture.
5. Jerome (340-420) said that the written things were to be accepted and those not written rejected.
G. The Scriptures are divinely inspired and inerrant.
1. John
2. 1 Corinthians 2:6f -- wisdom of God revealed in words taught by the Spirit
3. 2 Timothy 3:15-17 -- inspired of God and all-sufficient
4. 2 Peter 1:19-21 -- word of prophecy made more sure; not by man; moved by the Holy Spirit
5. John
H. Every
Christian has the ability and right to interpret Scripture, by using Scripture
(Acts
I. Traditions of men are condemned (Col. 2:8).
J. Must not go beyond, add to, or take from what is written in Scripture (Deut. 4:2; Prov. 30:6; 1 Cor. 4:6; Gal. 1:6-9).
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 75-103
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 75-141, 2032-2040 (pp. 35-44, 546-548)
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SACRAMENTS
A. SACRAMENTAL THEOLOGY
II. An important dimension of Catholicism is its commitment to priniciple of sacramentality.
1. This is the concept that all reality has a "mysterious" dimension; the Greek word mysterion is the closest NT word to sacrament. Everything is capable of embodying and communicating the divine.
2. Just as God reaches us through the finite and the visible, so we reach God through the finite and the visible. The point at which this occurs is the sacramental encounter (McBrien 787, 801).
3. The Church plays an indispensible sacramental, or mediating role in salvation. They are "of the Church" in the double sense that they are "by her" and "for her" (CCC 118).
III. Sacramentals and Sacraments
1. Sacramentals refer to sacraments in the widest sense. They are any finite reality through which the divine is apprehended.
2. Sacraments, more specifically, are "those finite realities thrugh which God is communicated to the Church and through which the Church responds" (McBrien 788).
3. The sacraments are directly ecclesiological in character; their immediate context is the church. They are acts of the church, and their lasting effect is one of relationship with the church.
IV. The significance of sacraments
1. Sacraments are signs, or symbols, of faith. Aquinas said that sacraments are causes of grace insofar as they signify it. As such, sacraments are:
B. Signs of faith. The sacrament instructs or calls to mind the unseen reality hidden underneath the sign.
C. Acts of worship. They are considered liturgy, through which we participate ritually in Christ's sacrifice.
D. Signs of the unity of the church. The faith expressed is the faith of the church and mediated to the individual by the church.
E. Signs of Christ's presence. The saving presence and action of God in Christ (the primordial sacrament) is mediated every time the sacrament is celebrated.
1. Sacraments are causes of grace.
V. The sacraments act ex opere operato (lit., by the very fact of the actions being performed (CCC 1128).
VI. The personal merit of the recipient does not cause the grace received.
VII. Neither does God force the human will. Aquinas taught that the recipient must have a "right disposition" in order to receive the grace of the sacrament: there must be an interior conversion to God, faith, and devotion. The fruitfulness of the sacrament depends on this.
1. The sacraments are necessary for salvation (CCC 1129).
VIII. The effects of the sacraments
1. In every sacrament there are the following elements:
IX. The external sign or ritual itself (sacramentum tantum, "the sign alone")
X. The grace, or immediate effect (res tantum, "the reality alone")
XI. The lasting effect (res et sacramentum)
1. Three of the sacraments cannot be repeated: baptism, confirmation, and orders. They are received only once.
XII. The res et sacramentum of these sacraments is called the character. The term was used in ancient times to refer to the seal by which a soldier or slave might be identified as belonging to the service of the emperor or an owner. Tertullian and Augustine began to use the term to be applied to the sacramental rite of sealing by which a person became a Christian for life. In the medieval period the word character came to be applied to the permanent or lasting effect of these three sacraments (CCC 1121).
XIII. Every sacrament, including the non-character sacraments, is said to have a res et sacramentum.
1. Catholics make a distinction between sanctifying grace and actual grace.
XIV. Sanctifying grace is a gift of the Holy Spirit given through baptism (CCC 1266, 1996-2000). It is also called a deifying grace, or an habitual grace, because it instills "the permanent disposition to live and act in keeping with God's call" (CCC 2000).
XV. Actual graces refer to "God's interventions, whether at the beginning of conversion or in the course of the work of sanctification" (CCC 2000). This assisting and enlightening grace is communicated through the sacraments.
XVI. The validity of the sacraments
1. Because the priest represents the church and acts in its name, and because the sacraments are acts of the church, the priest must meet certain condictions (CCC 1120).
XVII. The minister of the sacrament must voluntarily
carry out the intention of the church, and intend what the church intends (
XVIII. Not all members of the church are qualified to
administer every sacrament (
XIX. The validity of the sacrament does not, however, depend on the personal worthiness of the minister (Trent, canon 12; CCC 1128).
1. The "fruitful reception" of the sacraments depends on the disposition of the recipient. The intended recipient must have faith in the sacrament and in the reality it symbolizes, and must be morally prepared for it.
XX. If a person receives a character sacrament in a state of mortal sin, the sacrament is validly received but the grace is not communicated until perfect contrition occurs.
XXI. What about baptism of infants? How can they be "disposed" to receive the sacrament? The Catholic position is that the intention is expressed not by the child but by those who bring the child for baptism (parents, sponsors, relatives, friends). They use the analogy of a child entering a family by birth, but not yet being capable of giving love until the child has grown.
XXII. The institution of the sacraments
1. Were the sacraments instituted by Christ? Catholics acknowledge that the sacraments do not issue from some precise mandate of the Lord.
2. But they maintain that since the church had its origins in Christ, and since the sacraments have their origin in the church, therefore Jesus willed the sacraments to the same degree and extent as he willed the church.
XXIII. The number of sacraments
1. The Catholic Church recognizes seven signs as sacraments in the fullest sense (CCC 1117, 1210).
XXIV. Three sacraments of initiation: baptism, confirmation, and eucharist
XXV. Two sacraments of healing: penance and anointing of the sick
XXVI. Two sacraments of vocation and commitment: matrimony and holy orders
1. Sacramentals are understood as signs which resemble the sacraments (CCC 1667-1679). They do not cause grace ex opere operato (primarily through the power of the rite itself), but ex opere operantis (primarily through the faith and devotion of those who participate). Examples: baptismal water, holy oils, blessed ashes, candles, palms, crucifixes, statues, and medals.
XXVII. Scriptures used to support the sacramental concept.
1. Catholics appeal to various passages that refer
to the power Christ demonstrate in working miracles (Lk.
2. They also argue that "the Church, by the power of the Spirit who guides her 'into all truth,' has gradually recognized this treasure received from Christ, and, as the faithful steward of God's mysteries, has determined its 'dispensation'" (CCC 1117). They cite John 16:13, Matthew 13:52, and 1 Corinthians 4:1 to support these assertions (CCC 1117, note 34).
3. Other passages that refer to signs performed by
Christ (John 2:2f) and to the "mystery" of Christ and the church
(Eph.
4. However, the use of the word "mystery" to convey the idea of a sacrament is unwarranted in the light of scripture. The New Testament uses the term to mean truth formerly hidden but now revealed.
5. There is nothing in Jesus having the power to work signs and miracles to suggest that He meant to institute sacraments, either then or later.
6. As noted earlier, Catholic theologians acknowledge that Christ did not institute the sacraments through any specific mandate. Rather, they reason that "Jesus willed the sacrament to the same degree and extent as he willed the Church" (McBrien 797-799). Karl Rahner, arguing in the context of the theory of the development of doctrine, stated that "This sacramentality is interpreted by the church in the seven sacraments, just as the church developed its own essence in its constitution" (Foundations of Christian Faith, 413, quoted in McBrien 799). Ultimately, the sacramental system rests upon the assumptions underlying apostolic succession, Church Tradition, the Magisterium, and the theory of development.
XXVIII. II. BAPTISM
A. Baptism, along with Confirmation and Eucharist, constitute the Rite of Initiation for Catholics. Several observations can be made regarding this rite since Vatican II.
1. Adult initiation is now regarded as the norm rather than the exception, as set forth in the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults (RCIA).
2. Baptism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist are so closely related that together they constitute a single process of initiation (CCC 1233).
3. The rites are being viewed less as a means of personal sanctification and more as "empowerments" to carry out the evangelistic mission.
4. The catechumenate is receiving greater emphasis, especially to emphasize one's missionary responsibility in the Church, as well as one's personal salvation.
B. Steps leading to adult baptism
1. Divine grace. "Before this faith can be exercised, man must have the grace of God to move and assist him...." (CCC 153-155, 1989, 1993, 1998, 2001).
2. Faith (CCC 144-165). Man freely responds to God in faith (CCC 2002).
3. The catechumenate (CCC 1229-1233, 1247-1249). Vatican II restored the catechumenate (the process of pastoral formation of candidates for entrance into the Church) for adults. The rites for several stages of preparation are found in the RCIA. There are three main phases:
XXIX. Evangelization, or the precatechumenate. Interested persons are introduced to Catholicism and their inquiries are answered.
XXX. The catechumenate or instructional phase. Candidates are formally promoted into this phase in the Rite of Acceptance to the Order of Catechumens.
XXXI. A period of purification, reflection, and spiritual enlightenment. This period usually takes place during Lent, culminating in their baptism on Easter Sunday.
1. The baptism ceremony (CCC 1234-1245) is following immediately by the Eucharist and Confirmation (CCC 1233, 1275). There is a postinitiation catechesis following baptism.
B. Baptism of infants
1. In the case of infant baptism, the preparatory stages are abridged. There is a post-catechumenate for instruction after baptism.
2. This is said to be necessary because of the taint of original sin (CCC 1250-1252).
3. Faith is essential for baptism, but Catholics argue that faith must grow after baptism (CCC 1254) and that the parents or other sponsors must fulfill this need for infants (CCC 1255).
4. There are no examples in the NT of infants being
baptized. They cannot have faith or repentance. They have no need of baptism
(Matt. 18:3;
C. Original sin (CCC 374-421) is viewed as "the state or condition in which, because of the sin of Adam and Eve, all human persons are born" (McBrien 184).
1. The classical doctrine of original sin was first fully developed by Augustine especially in his controversy with Pelagius. He portrayed it as a situation in which the whole human race is a "mass of perdition". Some through predestination are saved from this condition. The classical proof-text is Romans 5:12-21. It is said that the consequences of the Adamic sin were transmitted to all human beings by propogation, not by imitation.
2. Augustine linked original sin with concupiscence, which means the person's desire for material or sensual satisfaction. Concupiscence is an effect of original sin transmitted through sexual intercourse. Concupiscence infects every human act, so all our deeds are in some sense sinful.
3. In the middle ages original sin came to be explained as a lack of sanctifying grace brought about by Adam's sin. Baptism blots out original sin, but concupiscence remains. Human nature is weakened by original sin (CCC 1264-1266).
4. The Council of
5. Recent Catholic theologians are moving to a position that suggests that the doctrine of original sin is "a rationalized myth about the mystery of evil" (McBrien 185). McBrien acknowledges that Paul's intention in Romans 5 was "simply to assert that we are all sinners and that we share in a situation that has been universal from the beginning" (186-187), but that the doctrine of original sin has been read back into the epistle.
6. It is stated that because of the Adamic sin, we are born into a situation in which grace is not at our disposal as God intended. As such, we stand under the influence of concupiscence and death. We are wounded in our human nature.
7. Grace orients the individual toward Christ, but the influence of concupiscence is still present. "Either we freely ratify our state of Original Sin by personal sin, or we freely ratify our redeemed condition by faith, hope, and love" (McBrien 190). Our moral standing before God is determined by free choice.
D. Baptism is thus "the basis of the whole Christian life, the gateway to life in the Spirit, and the door which gives access to the other sacraments. Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God..." (CCC 1213, cf. 790, 977, 1214-1216, 1227, 1250-1252).
E. The practice of baptism in Catholicism involves an elaborate ceremony including the sign of the cross, exorcisms, consecrated water, anointing with oil, white garments, and (for those of age) First Holy Communion (CCC 1234-1245).
1. Either immersion, pouring, or sprinking are
permitted (CCC 1239). Appeal is made to the Didache
(AD 180), as well as to certain NT cases in which immersion would
supposedly be difficult (Philippian jailor,
2. But these arguments will not stand; immersion was possible in every situation.
3. By definition of the Greek term baptism, it must be an immersion.
4. Romans 6:4 and Acts 8:38-39 demand immersion.
F. Necessity of baptism. The Catholic Church teaches that baptism is necessary for salvation. One can, however, be saved without baptism under the following circumstances:
1. Baptism of Desire. For those explicitly called to the Church, baptism is necessary. But it is not always required that a person's desire be explicit. "God also accepts an implicit desire, so called because it is contained in the good disposition of soul by which a person wants his or her will to be conformed to God's will" ("Boston Letter" of 1949, quoted in McBrien 815). This teaching was reaffirmed by Vatican II.
2. Martyrdom for the cause of Christ.
XXXII. CONFIRMATION (CCC 1285-1321)
A. This comprises the postbaptismal rites of anointing, the laying on of hands, and the words, "Be sealed with the Gift of the Holy Spirit." It is a ratification or sealing of baptism. For those baptized as infants it provides an opportunity to ratify freely and deliberately what was done for them at baptism.
B. Historically, the separation of confirmation from baptism occurred in the West but not in the East, primarily because of
1. The practice of infant baptism.
2. The development of episcopacy and the unavailability of bishops.
C. The doctrine was eventually, by the middle ages, elaborated to justify the practice. The idea was that confirmation provides "grace for strength."
D. When adults are baptized, they receive confirmation and first communion immediately. Those baptized as infants receive confirmation at the age of reason or age of discretion.
E. The practice of confirmation is based on
passages such as Acts 8:15-17; Acts 19; 1 Cor. 6:19; 2 Cor. 1:21-22. But
careful study of the passages in their context shows that the Holy Spirit is
given to those who are baptized (cf Acts
XXXIII. EUCHARIST
A. "Eucharist" is from Greek work meaning "thanksgiving" in that Jesus gave thanks at the Last Supper. "Mass" is from the Latin missa, which meant a dismissal, the closing blessing or prayer at any service. The term came to be applied exclusively to the Eucharist (CCC 1328-1332).
B. Catholic doctrine on the eucharist focuses on two issues: the sacrificial nature of the Mass and the real presence of Christ.
C. The official teaching of the Catholic church, according to the Council of Trent, is that the Mass is a true sacrifice (CCC 1362-1372).
1. It is more than commemoration and thanksgiving. It is an expiation for the living and the dead. Christ is the same victim and priest in the Eucharist as on the cross. The consecrated bread and wine are called hosts, from the Latin for "victim" (CCC 1365). The sacrifice of the cross and that of the Mass are "one and the same" (CCC 1367).
2. Each Mass presents again the sacrifice of the cross (CCC 1330, 1354, 1357). When the bread and wine are consecrated, there is the immolation of Christ. Immolation is the sacrificial killing of a victim. The sacrifice on the cross was a bloody sacrifice; the sacrifice of the Mass is unbloody (CCC 1353-1367).
3. Each Mass is a memorial of the sacrifice of the cross (CCC 1356-1372).
4. The fruits of the sacrifice of the Mass are the
same as those of the cross. According to
D. The Catholic church also teaches that Christ is really present in the consecrated elements of bread and wine. Since the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, this has been described by the term transubstantiation. This is the belief that the substance of the bread and wine is changed into the body and blood of Christ (CCC 1333, 1352-1358, 1373-1377).
1. In 1965 Pope Paul VI explained transubstantiation in the encyclical Mysterium Fidei: the consecrated elements bear not only a new meaning (transignification) and a new purpose (transfinalization), but a new substantial reality as well (transubstantiation) (CCC 1374-1376).
2. Paul VI also reaffirmed the teaching that the real presence continues after Mass (CCC 1377-1379). Thus the eucharistic host may be adored and used for private Masses. The Catholic Church teaches the adoration or worship of the Eucharist (CCC 1418).
3. The whole Christ is believed to be present under
each form (bread and wine) (CCC 1374, 1377). Thus, according to
4. The real presence of Christ in the bread and wine comes about through the ordained priest who has the power to consecrate it (CCC 1105-1106, 1353).
E. As a sacrament, the Eucharist is viewed in terms of the following:
1. Thanksgiving to God for the death of Christ (CCC 1358-1361).
2. Remembrance (anamnesis) of the death of Christ (CCC 1362-1365).
3. A means of sanctifying grace and further justification (CCC 1391394). One receives remission of venial sin and temporal punishment due to sin.
4. Provides actual or enabling grace to do good works and preserve from future mortal sin (CCC 1395, 1402-1405, 1436).
5. Union with Christ's mystical body (CCC 1396).
F. Catholics are encouraged to attend Mass on Sundays and feast days, and even daily. They are required, however, to receive it once a year at Easter (CCC 1389).
G. Catholic arguments in light of Scripture
1. The Roman Catholic Church argues that Malachi
2. They say Jesus foretold the sacrifice of the Mass in John 4:19-21. But Jesus spoke of worship, not sacrifice.
3. They say Jesus offered bread and wine according to the order of Melchizedek (Psa. 110:4). Genesis 14:13-24, however, shows no mention of a sacrifice, but rather the bringing of bread and wine for nourishment as a way to bless Abraham.
4. They argue Jesus used the present tense in instituting the Lord's Supper in Matthew 26:28 and Luke 22:20 (CCC 1365). Thus he was offering a sacrifice that very night. But Jesus used the Greek participle to say the bread and wine represented the sacrifice he was soon to make.
5. Catholics argue that Christ instituted a new passover by offering himself under visible signs (CCC 1339-1340). "As often as the sacrifice of the cross by which 'Christ our Pasch is sacrificed' (1 Corinthians 5:7) is celebrated on the altar, the work of our redemption is carried out" (Second Vatican Council). This argue assumes that the sacrifice of the new covenant was the supper. Paul said "Christ our Passover also has been sacrificed" (1 Cor. 5:7). It has already been offered (past tense).
6. They use 1 Corinthians 10:21 to argue that Paul understood the Lord's Supper to be a sacrifice. They do this by substituting "altar" for "table". This cannot be justified.
H. Scriptural objections
1. The language of the institution of the Lord's Supper is metaphorical. Catholics teach that Jesus said, "This is my body" and not "This is like or represents my body." A metaphor is a stated or implied likeness.
2. The feast is commemorative (Lk.
3. Compare Matthew 26:28 and Luke 22:20. In Matthew Jesus said this is the blood of the covenant, and in Luke He said the cup is the new covenant "in my blood." Catholics argue that Luke 22 is metaphorical. It is inconsistent to so argue and then deny the metaphorical nature of Matthew 26.
4. The Catholic position demands a miracle but it is evident that such does not take place. When Jesus changed the substance of anything, the change was discernable (cf. water into wine).
5. "Communion" does not imply transubstantiation, as is clear when 1 Corinthians 10:15-21 is studied in context.
6. The New Testament nowhere teaches or implies that the Lord's Supper is a resacrificing of Christ in an unbloody manner. There is nothing to suggest it is anything other than a memorial.
7. Christ need not be offered often (Heb.
8. All Christians are priests (1 Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:6; 5:8-9). There is no separate priesthood.
9. The Lord's Supper is only for the living (1 Cor. 11:28-29). The dead cannot discern the body and blood of Christ.
XXXIV. PENANCE/RECONCILIATION (CCC 976-987, 1422-1498)
A. Brief history of the sacrament of penance
1. In the fourth through the sixth centuries, Penance (known as "Canonical Penance") developed along the following lines: public in character; administered only once in a lifetime; required proof of conversion; was reserved for serious sins; required demonstration of change of heart and period of probation; and the rite of "reconciliation of the penitent. Severe forms of penance such as celibacy often led to the sacrament being postponed until near death.
2. By end of sixth century Canonical Penance came to be known as Confession.
3. In the seventh to eleventh centuries, penance became a private practice; included trivial offenses; was administered by priests as well as the bishop; penitential books were developed, which codified various sins with their appropriate penances.
4. In the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, penance was summarized as satisfaction, confession, contrition, and absolution. The emphasis was less on reconciliation and more on satisfaction.
5. The Council of
6. According to the Second Vatican Council, the purpose of Penance is to "obtain pardon from the mercy of God" and to be "reconciled with the Church whom [sinners] have wounded by their sin, and who, by its charity, its example and its prayer, collaborates in their conversion."
B. The Catholic Church teaches that there are two categories of sins: mortal and venial sin (CCC 1849-1876).
1. Mortal sin (from the Latin for "death") involves a serious matter committed with full knowledge and free consent of the will. It results in spiritual death and, unrepented, brings eternal punishment (CCC 1855, 1861, 1874).
2. Venial sin (from the Latin venia, "pardon") is a sin that is not so serious, or without full knowledge or consent of the will. These sins can be forgiven outside confession or without penance (CCC 1862, 1875).
C. As a sacrament, penance is for the purpose of reestablishing the relationship between God and the Church, and the Catholic who has committed mortal sin; thus it is also called the sacrament of reconciliation (CCC 1424, 1446). Penance is paralleled in Catholic doctrine to baptism (CCC 980). The basic elements are as follows:
1. Confession of sin to a priest (CCC 1455-1458). This has also been called "auricular confession" because it is made in the ear or in the hearing of the priest.
2. Act of Contrition (CCC 1430-1433, 1450-1454). This is a demonstration of sorrow for sin and determination to turn from it, usually expressed in a prayer.
3. Acts of penance or satisfaction by the sinner (CCC 1434-1439,1459-1460).
4. Absolution or release from the consequences of guilt (CCC 1441-1449, 1461-1467). This is a judicial act of the priest.
D. Catholics are required to make confession at least once a year (CCC 2042). They are recommended to confess venial sins as well as mortal sins, because of the strength this provides (CCC 1458).
E. Scriptural consideration:
1. Catholics appeal to John 20:22-23. McBrien admits the following regarding this passage: "By itself, the text does not 'prove' that Jesus instituted the sacrament of Penance as we know it today or that he conferred the power to forgive sins only to the Apostles, their successors, and their chosen delegates" (836). This passage is a parallel account of the Great Commission (Matt. 28:18-20; Mk. 16:15-16; Lk. 24:47). McBrien goes on to argue the consistency of John 20 with Jesus' cure of the paralytic, where in every account there is mention of the forgiveness of sins (cf. Matt. 9:2-8; Mk. 2:5-12; Lk. 5:20-26); and the prominence of forgiveness in the preaching of the apostles. These facts, he concludes, shows that forgiveness was exercised in the early church. But does this in any way support the Catholic doctrine of penance as a sacrament?
2. They also refer to Matthew
3. James
4. Acts
5. The scriptures make no distinctions between
sins, such as mortal and venial. All sins are viewed as "mortal"
(Ezek. 18:4; Rom.
XXXV.ANOINTING OF THE SICK (CCC 1499-1532)
A. This sacrament, formerly known as Extreme Unction, is administered to the sick and dying.
B. Historical development of the sacrament
1. McBrien states, "There is, for all practical purposes, no evidence in the early centuries for the actual rite of Anointing" (844).
2. The first documentary evidence comes in a letter
of Innocent I, bishop of
3. In the reform of Charlemagne in the ninth century, Anointing became established among the "last rites". By the mid-twelfth century the sacrament was called Extreme Unction, or last anointing, having taken over the function of the Viaticum.
4. The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 counted Extreme Unction among the seven sacraments, regarded primarily as the sacrament of spiritual help for the dying, and secondarily as a rite for the sick. Theologians asserted that the sacrament forgave all sin and even removed the consequences. To die immediately after Extreme Unction guaranteed an unimpeded journey to God.
5. The Council of
6. Vatican II recommended that the sacrament be called the Anointing of the Sick rather than Extreme Unction. The Viaticum is the last sacrament for the dying. The council declared, "In the holy anointing of the sick with the prayer of the priest, the whole Church recommends the sick to the Lord, who suffered and has been glorified, asking him to give them relief and salvation."
C. The ritual includes a greeting, words to those present, a penitential rite (Scripture, litany), the priest's laying on of hands, blessing of oil, prayer of thanksgiving, anointing of the forehead and hands with oil with the words, "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit," and "May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up." The anointing is followed by the Lord's Prayer, Communion, and a blessing.
D. The primary passage used by Catholics to support the doctrine is James 5:14-16.
1. Catholic authorities themselves admit the
passage does not prove the sacrament. The Council of Trent argues nothing
stronger than an "insinuation" from this passage. Richard McBrien
says, "...James
2. Their view of James 5:14-16 demands an
interpretation of "elders" as "priests" which is a
contradition of the use of the term (cf. Acts 20:17, 28; 1 Pet. 5:1-5; Phil.
1:1; Acts 14:23, et al.). In the light of other scripture their interpretation
is inconsistent with what is necessary for forgiveness (cf. Jas.
3. An alternate interpretation that is more consistent with Scripture is that some elders had spiritual gifts.
4. Perhaps an even better interpretation is that "sick" and "anointing with oil" are use figuratively in this passage, as elsewhere in Scripture.
XXXVI. MATRIMONY (CCC 1601-1666)
A. In the post-apostolic age marriage was increasingly viewed as the justification of the use of sex which has been infected by sin, a "lawful remedy for concupiscence." This trend reached its fullest development with Augustine. He taught that the purpose of marriage was solely for the begetting of children. Sexual desire is the unfortunate effect of Original Sin. Every child is of the parents' sin because the act of procreation is possible only with the seductive aid of physical lust. But, he said, it is a tolerable sin since God wants us to be fruitful and multiply. Marriage provides a legitimate way to keep "perverse desire within its proper bounds."
B. The sacramentality of marriage was developed and affirmed in medieval thought, and the Council of Trent required that marriages take place in the presence of a priest.
C. Trent also stated, "If anyone says that the married state surpasses that of virginity or celibacy, and that it is not better and happier to remain in virginity or celibacy than to be united in matrimony, anathema sit." This view continued to be upheld until Vatican II. Marriage's primary purpose was the propogation of life.
D. Vatican II reaffirmed the sacramental view of marriage, but modified the historic perspective somewhat. It emphasized, for example, that the mutual love between husband and wife is equally important as the begetting of children.
E. Catholics appeal to Ephesians 5:25-32 and John 2:2 to argue that marriage is a sacrament.
1. The use of the word "mystery" to convey the Catholic idea of "sacrament" is unwarranted. In the New Testament the word is used to mean truth formerly hidden but now revealed.
2. There is no suggestion in John 2:2 that Jesus instituted a sacrament.
XXXVII. HOLY ORDER (CCC 1536-1600)
A. This is the sacrament by which men receive the power and grace to perform their sacred duties.
B. The word "order" comes from the Latin ordo, perhaps first used by Tertullian to apply to the ministry as a whole. Some suggest he may have been influenced by Psalm 110:4 and Hebrews 5-7 which refer to the priesthood "according to the order of Melchizedek" (McBrien 864).
C. In the post-apostolic period, hierus (priest) became a common designation for an elder in the church. This was never the case in the New Testament. Bishops (episcopoi), elders (presbyteroi) or priests (herius), and deacon (diakonoi) became the three offices in the church by the end of the second century. The monarchic episcopate also developed.
D. The bishop was elected by the people but ordained by another bishop by imposition of hands. The priest and deacon were ordained by the bishop.
E. In the middle ages the priesthood developed further into a caste within the church, influenced both by feudalism and monasticism. In the twelfth century celibacy became a universal requirement for priests.
F. The Council of Trent declared that the ordained priesthood is conferred through one of seven sacraments, that the Mass is a true sacrifice requiring a specially ordained priesthood, and that there is a true heirarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons and that these ministers do no depend on the call of the community for their authority and powers, but only on the sacrament of Holy Order.
G. Vatican II acknowledged a priesthood of all believers, but maintained that the priesthood of ordination is a separate and sacramental body with special power and authority. Bishops are the successors to the apostles; priests are fellow workers with the bishops; and deacons are servants of the people in communion with the bishop and priests.
H. Scriptures used to support the doctrine: John
20:22-23; Acts 6:6; 13:1;
1. John 20:22-23 refers only to the apostles. Apostolic succession is demanded for their position, but is not taught here. Their power was not to remit sin but to bind the gospel which had been bound in heaven.
2. Those chosen to serve in Acts 6 were set apart to this special work by prayer and imposition of hands but not in the sense the Catholic Church teaches.
3. In Acts 13:1-3 the brethren simply set these men apart to the work God had called them to with their blessing, but there is not reference to the Catholic idea of sacrament.
4. Paul and Barnabas appointed men as elders in the
churches (Acts
5. Timothy was set apart to the work of an
evangelist by prophecy with the laying on of hands (1 Tim.
6. In 1 Tim. 5:22 the laying on of hands was a visible sign of recognition done deliberately in view of the serious nature of the work. There is no idea in any of these passages of the Catholic sacramental concept.
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 168-217, 254-262
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1066-1690 (pp. 301-470)
McBrien, Richard P., Catholicism, 787-803
PURGATORY AND INDULGENCES
A. PURGATORY
II. The Catholic doctrine of purgatory developed gradually.
1. Origin believed in universal salvation, but that there will be a purification process for each individual.
2. After Augustine the church came to teach of an intermediate realm after death where individuals are purged by fire before being totally united with God (the Beatific Vision).
3. By the twelfth century the existence of purgatory as a place became prominent. The Western church emphasized the penal and expiatory character of purgatory, whereas the Eastern church emphasized purgatory as a process of maturation and spiritual growth. Church councils in the late middle ages likewise were divided on the nature of purgatory.
4. The Council of
5. Vatican II states the doctrine as follows: "The truth has been divinely revealed that sins are followed by punishments. God's holiness and justice inflict them. Sins must be expiated. This may be done on this earth through the sorrows, miseries and trials of this life and, above all, through death. Otherwise the expiation must be made in the next life through fire and torments or purifying punishments."
6. The concept is that the average Catholic has committed venial sins for which he/she has never done penance or never tried to gain an indulgence. God's justice demands that the punishment for these sins be atoned for, either in this life or after death. Thus there must be some means of purifying the punishment due to sin after death, before a person is fit to enter heaven.
7. Exceptions include baptized infants who die before the age of accountability (CCC 1023-1029), and those who have worked hard or suffered much on earth, such as "saints". These may go immediately to heaven to see the Beatific Vision.
8. Some Catholics emphasize that the pain of purgatory is actual physical pain of fire (CCC 1031). Other suggest it iss the loss of separation from God. Still others describe it as "the intrinsic pain that we all feel when we are asked to surrender our ego-centered self so that the God-centered loving self may take its place" (McBrien 1169); as such it is part of the larger process of our being called and made one with God.
III. II. INDULGENCES (CCC 1471-1479)
A. An indulgence is "a remission before God of the temporal punishment for sin the guilt of which is already forgiven" (1983 Code of Canon Law). A distinction is made between the guilt of sin, which is removed by penance, and the penalty of sin, which remains.
B. By the eleventh century indulgences began to be dispensed by the church. They were both a remission of some penance and a remission of some of the temporal punishment due to sin. Eventually the practice came to involve, not merely the church praying for the remission of temporal punishment due to sin, but declaring definitively that such temporal punishment was cancelled. The granting of indulgences came to be seen increasingly as an act of the pope, separate from the sacrament of penance. During the Crusades, plenary indulgences (the remission of all temporal punishment due to sin) came into prominence, in contrast to partial indulgences. By the mid-fifteenth century, indulgences for the dead began to be granted.
C. The doctrine of indulgences is linked with the doctrine of the Communion of Saints. The church on earth is united with the church in heaven and in purgatory. There is a "treasury of the church" which is a reservoir of the merits and expiation of Christ, Mary, and the saints. As members of the body of Christ, we are beneficiaries of Christ's saving work on our behalf. Through granting of indulgences, the church can draw from the treasury to benefit Christians, living or dead (CCC 1476-1477).
D. An individual is granted an indulgence by doing specific acts of piety (CCC 1478).
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 218- 234, 262-269
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1020-1065 (pp. 287-299)
THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE OF THE VIRGIN MARY
A. THE "MOTHER OF GOD" (CCC 484-489, 495-511)
II. This belief formed the basis of Catholic development of Mariology.
III. The Nestorian controversy in the fifth century indirectly promoted it. This Christological controversy was over the nature of Christ. The Nestorians emphasized two distinct natures and said Christ was two persons. Nestorius denied that Mary should have the title "Mother of God" (theotokos), but was only mother of Christ (Christotokos). The Council of Ephesus in 431 ruled against Nestorius in favor of theotokos, partly in an effort to safeguard the unity of Christ in one divine person.
IV.
After the Council
of Ephesus various feasts in honor of Mary began to multiply. By the
mid-seventh century there were four separate feasts in
V.
Jesus is the
Logos, the Son of God, and Deity. He existed prior to His incarnation (Matt.
VI. II. PERPETUAL VIRGINITY (CCC 499-501, 721)
A. This idea was unknown before the third century.
B. The New Testament states the ante partum ("before birth") virginity of Mary, i.e., the virginal conception of Jesus. But there is no evidence of Mary's virginity in partu ("in the act of giving birth"), nor about her virginity post partum ("after birth"), i.e., that she had no normal sexual relationships after Jesus' birth.
C. In the second century Tertullian vigorously opposed both of the latter ideas. It was not until after the third century that Mary's perpetual virginity became accepted.
D. The doctrine developed as part of a tendency to glorify Mary, especially as a model for consecrated virgins, who came to hold a special status.
E. Scriptural arguments
1. Luke
2. Matthew
3. Jesus had brothers (Gal.
VII. MARY AS MEDIATRIX (CCC 968-971, 2673-2682)
A. By the eighth century, Mary came to be viewed especially in the East as mediatrix with God. Possessed of a maternal influence over God, she could intercede with God and turn away His anger and vengeance.
B. This became one of the most popular themes of medieval Marian piety and devotion, in the West as well as the East.
C. Medieval scholastic theologians argued from convenience: God could do something; it was fitting that he should; therefore he did it.
D. Bernard of Clairveaux (d. 1153) in his sermons "In Praise of the Virgin Mary" was especially influential in both popular devotion and theology. Mary had an intimate role in the redemption of man. She was the aquaduct that leads the waters of divine grace down to earth. God willed us to have "everything through Mary." Christ was the one true Mediator, but since He is also our Judge, we need a mediator with Him, and there is no one more efficacious than Mary.
E. A later theologian, Bonaventure, ascribed to Mary the role of Co-Redemptrix, since she consented to the sacrifice of her son and paid the price of her compassion. Christ was redeemer in the realm of justice, while Mary was redeemer in the realm of mercy (CCC 494, 963-973)
F. Scriptural considerations
1. Some refer to Genesis 3:15 in support of idea of Mary as co-redeemer. It is based on a faulty translation in Douay-Rheims: "she shall crush thy head". It should read "He shall bruise you on the head."
2. Does Luke 2:34-35 teach the union of mother and son in redemption? It is used to teach that the "sword" refers to Mary's participation in suffering with Christ. But she did not suffer death as Christ did, nor was she qualified to be a redeemer.
3. Catholics point to the wedding feast in
4. Catholics argue that Mary became our mediatrix at the cross, when Jesus said to John, "Behold your mother". By those words, they argue, Jesus became "Mother of the human race" and "Mother of the Church" (CCC 963). But the passage only shows that Jesus was arranging for the care of his mother; it says nothing about Christ making Mary the mother of mankind or of the church.
5. This doctrine is not found in the New Testament.
6. There is only one mediator (1 Tim. 2:5-6).
7. Christ is our High Priest who alone is our
intercessor (Heb.
VIII. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION (CCC 411, 490-493)
A. This doctrine developed as a result of the doctrine of original sin. Mary was seen as having been conceived without the stain of original sin.
B. In the middle ages there was considerable disagreement. Bernard of Clairveaux and Thomas Aquinas opposed it, while William of Ware and Duns Scotus defended it.
C. The feast of the Immaculate Conception was approved in 1476 by Pope Sixtus IV. The Council of Trent in 1546 explicitly excluded Mary from its decree on the universality of original sin.
D. The dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary was defined in a papal bull of December 8, 1854, Ineffabilis Deus, by Pius IX.: "The most Blessed Virgin Mary was, from the first moment of her conception, by the singular grace and privilege of almighty God and in view of the merits of Christ Jesus the Savior of the human race, preserved immune from all stain of original sin."
E. The dogma teaches that "Mary was exempt in a unique and exceptional way from the normal and the usual impact of sin, or, more positively, that she was given a greater degree of grace...in view of her role as the 'God-bearer'" (McBrien 1101).
F. Consider the claim that Mary never sinned in
light of: Heb.
IX. BODILY ASSUMPTION (CCC 966, 974)
A. From the beginning of the sixth century some churches celebrated Mary's bodily assumption into heaven. The belief originated, says McBrien, "not from biblical evidence nor even patristic testimony, but as the conclusion of a so-called argument from convenience or fittingness. It was 'fitting' that Jesus should have rescued his mother from the corruption of the flesh, and so he 'must have' have taken her bodily into heaven" (1085).
B. Following the declaration of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, there were increasing calls from Catholics to define the dogma of the Bodily Assumption.
C. In 1950, Pope Pius XII in the papal bull Munificentissimus Deus wrote, "We pronouce, declare, and define it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary, having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory."
D. Scriptural considerations
1. Psalm
E. Acts 2 applies it to Christ.
F. On the basis of Psalm 16 it is argued that she is incorruptible; it is an easy step to believe that she was assumed into heaven.
1. Genesis
2. Luke
3. ` Revelation
4. Song of Solomon 6:8-9 and 8:5 are sometimes applied to Mary.
5. The New Testament is silent about Mary after Acts 1:14, which explains why there were no doctrines about her assumption for the next 500 years.
6. Jesus refuted the belief in John 3:13.
X. MARIAN DEVOTION AND WORSHIP
A. The Catholic Church teaches that due to Mary's role in redemption, she should be greatly venerated: "Mary has by grace been exalted above all angels and men to a place second only to her Son, as the most holy mother of God who was involved in the mysteries of Christ: she is rightly honored by a special cult in the Church" (Vatican II; CCC 971, 2676-2679).
B. Catholics make a distinction between different degrees of worship:
1. Latria -- worship due to God alone
2. Hyperdulia -- the highest veneration given to a created being; reserved for Mary alone
3. Dulia -- simple veneration given to specially endowed creatures such as angels and saints
C. Objections
1. The only object of worship is God (Jn.
2. No created being is to accept worship (Acts
3. The distinction Catholics make regarding different degrees of worship is unscriptural. See lexicons and word studies on proskuneo (to make obeisance, do reverence), sebomai (to revere), and latreuo (to serve, to render religious service).
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 132-167
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 484-511, 963-975 (pp. 136-143, 273-276)
Creeds of Christendom, II:211f