A STUDY OF ROMAN CATHOLIC DOCTRINE IN LIGHT OF THE BIBLE
Daniel W. Petty
v Lesson One: The Roman Catholic Concept Of The Church
v Lesson Two: The Roman Catholic Priesthood In Light Of The Bible
v Lesson Four: The Doctrine Of Papal Infallibility
v Lesson Five: The Catholic Concept Of Divine Authority: Scripture, Tradition, And The Magisterium
v Lesson Six: The Roman Catholic Sacraments
v Lesson Seven: Purgatory And Indulgences
v Lesson Eight: The Catholic Doctrine Of The Virgin Mary
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CONCEPT OF THE CHURCH
INTRODUCTION.
Crucial to an understanding of the Catholic system of doctrine is a clear understanding of the Catholic concept of the church. In this lesson we will identify seven key principles that define the Catholic concept. Each principle is related to the others and in some sense builds on those that go before. Later lessons will lead us into more detailed study of many of these principles.
I. CATHOLICITY
A. "Catholic" means "universal". (CCC 830) Two senses:
1. Because Christ is present in the church
2. Because sent to the whole human race
B. Each particular local church is catholic "insofar as they are united to their pastors..." (CCC 832)
C. "A community of the Christian faithful in communion of faith and sacraments with their bishop ordained in apostolic succession" (CCC 833)
D. "Particular Churches are fully catholic through their communion with one of them, the Church of Rome 'which presides in charity'."(CCC 834, 837)
II. APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION
A. Founded upon the apostles in 3 ways, including continued guidance by the apostles through their successors, the bishops, priests, and pope (CCC 857).
B. Based on the promise to remain with them always, Matt. 28:20 (CCC 860)
C. Bishops are successors of the apostles (CCC 861)
D. Bishops take the place of the apostles as pastors (CCC 862)
E. History of the Theory of Apostolic Succession: began as a 3rd c. response to gnostic heresy.
1. The debate finally came down to the authority of the church. Against the gnostics, their claim to secret messages and teachers, the church claimed to be in possession of the original gospel and the true teachings of Jesus.
2. They argued that if Jesus had had any secret teaching, He would have passed it through His apostles, or the successors of the apostles. The doctrine arose that the bishops were the successors--"apostolic succession." Since all the bishops unanimously denied any such secret teaching, the gnostic claim must be false.
3.
Apostolic succession strengthened by claim of some of
the most ancient churches that they had lists of bishops linking them with the
apostles. (
4. The development of episcopacy went through several stages.
a) At first, a plurality of bishops (presbyters, pastors) in each church (autonomous).
b) Early in 2nd century, Clement and Ignatius refer to bishops, etc. Clement seems still to recognize "bishops and deacons" in the churches. Also in the Didache.
c) Ignatius first to distinguish between bishop (one), the presbyters, and the deacons. Perhaps still a college of leaders seen as equals, but still distinguished.
d)
By end of 2nd century, the bishop presides over the body
of presbyters. This is called the monarchical episcopate.
Irenaeus argues in Against Heresies that the bishop in each church is
a successor to the apostles. Thus, to be in the true Christian fellowship in
that place, must be right with the bishop. He also appealed to the church in
e)
Tertullian is an example of two extremes. First he
supported episcopacy, and unwittingly contributed to the tradition surrounding
f) Growth of episcopacy and heirarachy as bishops of large city churches gained prominence. They often assisted in starting new congregations, which came under their authority. AFter ca. 150, there were synods (meetings) of bishops. City bishops were prominent. Thus city bishops came to oversee the work of country bishops, which began to disappear.
III. SACERDOTALISM
A. Gradual development in the early centuries of the church led to increasing distinction of a priestly class. They did things for common christians they could not do for themselves, such as LS and baptism. These became the sole privilege of the bishop, ie, a specially ordained official.
B. The catholic church distinguished 3 distinct sacerdotal functions, or functions of the priesthood, which in effect make the church through its priesthood a mediator between man and God.
1. Teaching or prophetic function (CCC 888) -- makes the church the sole custodian of truth
2. Sanctifying or priestly function (CCC 893) -- makes the church the sole mediator of divine grace.
3. Governing or ruling function (CCC 894)
IV. INFALLIBILITY
A. In the teaching function, called the "Magisterium", the church with its priesthood claims infallibility.
B. Pope is infallible in proclamations on faith and morals (CCC 891).
C. Body of bishops likewise infallible (CCC 890)
D. Thus the church insofar as it adheres to the church of Rome and the pope, is infallible. They are the sole custodians of truth.
E. This concept includes the Doctrine of Development.
V. SACRAMENTALISM
A. Seven sacraments are signs, instruments, or channels of divine grace. Through them grace is dispensed through the whole body (CCC 774)
B. The church is thus called a "sacrament". It is a channel or instrument of grace -- ie, no grace without the church (CCC 775-776)
C. Thus no salvation outside the church (CCC 846)
VI. AUTHORITY
A. The church in its governing function has absolute authority (CCC 894-95)
VII. INSTITUTIONAL/HIERARCHICAL
A. The church is both visible and spiritual. "A visible organization through which he communicates truth and grace to all men" (CCC 771). "A society structured with hierarchical organs."
B. The end of persecutions under Constantine (312), his "conversion" and his favoring of Christianity above all other religions led to a development of catholic hierarchical along lines parallel to the Roman Empire. The geographical divisions of the empire were used for the organization of the church.
1. Parishes -- districts served by neighborhood chruches; served by priests (2179)
2. Dioceses or sees -- each one governed by a bishop; consist of parish churches in a region. About 2000 of them (833, 1560)
3. Provinces -- jurisdiction consisting of several dioceses; about 500.
4. Archdiocese -- principal diocese in a province; governed by archbishop (887)
5.
Apostolic See --
C. The hierarchy of offices, starting at the top, is as follows:
1.
Pope, bishop of
2. Patriarchs -- title of bishop, second only to pope; they oversee certain large jurisdictions.
3. Archbishops
4. Bishops
5. Priests--mostly serve in parish churches; pastoring and administering sacraments, esp, Mass and penance.
6. Deacons -- assisting priests with sacraments, preaching and parish administration; can perform sacraments of baptism and marriage, but not Mass or confessions.
D.
Curia Romana is the organization at
1. College of Cardinals -- these are usually ordained bishops who serve the pope as his top advisors and administrators. They make up a supreme senate of the church. There is a papal secretary who acts as the pope's "prime minister". If the pope dies or resigns, the cardinals elect the next pope.
2. Roman Congregations -- each one headed by a prefect and composed of cardinals. Administrative and disciplinary powers.
3. Holy Offices -- discharge the ordinary routine business of the church.
4. Tribunals -- Assemblies of cardinals and prelates who deal with judicial matters.
E. Religious institutions -- brothers and sisters (nuns); education, health care, social welfare, administration, and missions.
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 19-42
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 748-856 (pp. 214-247)
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIESTHOOD IN LIGHT OF THE BIBLE
I. THE CATHOLIC CONCEPT OF THE PRIESTHOOD
A. Catholics have a separate, distinct order of priests.
1. While acknowledging that all Christians have a share in the royal priesthood of Christ, they assert that "the sacramental character of the ordained priest makes him a sharer in a special way in Christ's priestly office and equips him with the sacramental powers and authority to carry out Christ's priestly ministry of teaching, ruling, and sanctifying men" (New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Priest and Priesthood, Christian").
2. "Catholics...teach that the priestly office and ministry has been entrusted in a special way to a particular group within the Church, and that the rite by which they are invested is a true Sacrament that confers a special power and grace to equip them for their ministry. According to Catholic teaching this ministry is both sacrificial, or cultic, and pastoral" (New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Priest and Priesthood, Christian").
B. Catholics argue that not only did the Apostles and their successors have a pastoral function, but also a sacrificial ministry. The Council of Trent in its decree on the Mass, stated that Christ ordained the Apostles priests at the Last Supper, adding "By the words 'Do this in commemoration of me, etc.' as the Catholic Church has always understood and taught, He commanded them and their successors in the priesthood to offer His sacrifice."
1. As
the New Catholic Encyclopedia says, "
2. There is nothing, however, in the accounts of the institution of the Lord's Supper to suggest either that the Supper was a sacrifice or that the Apostles were ordained as priests.
3. The Lord's Supper was to be a perpetual memorial feast; thus Jesus said, "Do this in memory of me..." (Matt. 26:26f; Mk. 14:22f; Lk. 22:14f; 1 Cor. 11:17f).
C. They further distinguish between the presbyter or priest, and the bishop. "The presbyter or priest of the second grade is to assist the bishop" ("Priest and Priesthood").
1. Justification is often found in Moses' selection of 70 elders to assist him in leading the people in the wilderness in Numbers 11:16).
2. But the New Testament makes no distinction between bishops (episcopoi) and elders (presbyteros). Nor are presbyters ever called priests (hierus).
3. The New Testament makes no distinction between "clergy" and "laity".
II. THE THEORY OF APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION
A. There are two senses in which Catholics describe the apostolic office: 1) the mission of founding the church and 2) the mission of governing and preserving the church.
1. The mission of founding the church
a) Extraordinary
b) Temporary
c) Personal
d) Exclusive
e) Equality among all apostles
f) Consisted of two things: the complete revelation of divine truth, and the building up of the church according to the design Christ had drawn for them.
g) This mission ceased with the apostles (no succession).
2. The mission of maintaining, ruling, and ministering to the church
a) Each apostle was built upon Peter.
b) As new churches were established, they came under supervision of Peter.
c) Since there is a need of sacraments to the end of time, and since apostles were dispensers of sacraments, it follows they needed successors.
d) This distinction of missions is arbitrary, without any scriptural foundation.
B. The bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.
1. "In order that the full and living Gospel might always be preserved in the Church the apostles left bishops as their successors. They gave them 'their own position of teaching authority'" (CCC 77).
2. "The Church teaches that 'the bishops have by divine institution taken the place of the apostles as pastors of the Church, in such wise that whoever listens to them is listening to Christ and whoever despises them despises Christ and him who sent Christ'" (CCC 861-862).
3. When Christ instituted the Twelve, "he constituted them in the form of a college or permanent assembly...so in like fashion the Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, and the bishops, the successors of the apostles, are related with and united to one another" (CCC 880).
C. The priestly or sacerdotal function of the bishops is handed down to the priests.
1. Apostolic succession "structures the whole liturgical life of the Church and is itself sacramental, hand on by the sacrament of the Holy Spirit (CCC 1087).
2. "The function of the bishops' ministry was handed over in a subordinate degree to priests so that they might be appointed in the order of the priesthood and be co-workers of the episcopal order for the proper fulfillment of the apostolic mission that had been entrusted to it by Christ" (CCC 1562).
3. "The priest is the man of God, the minister of God.... He that despiseth the priest despiseth God; he that hears him hears God. The priest remits sins as God, and that which he calles his body at the altar is adored as God by himself and by the congregation.... It is clear that their function is such that none greater can be conceived. Wherefore they are justly called not only angels, but also God, holding as they do among us the power and authority of the immortal God" (Council of Trent).
D. The bishops inherited three offices or powers by succession.
1. The teaching office
a) "Bishops, with priests as co-workers, have as their first task 'to preach the Gospel of God to all men'" (CCC 888; cf. 77)
b) They alone are authorized to give an "authentic interpretation of the Word of God, whether in its written form or in the form of Tradition" (CCC 85, 100).
2. The sanctifying office
a) "Bishop and priests sanctify the Church by their prayer and work, by their ministry of the word and of the sacraments" (CCC 893).
b) Bishops and priests must be ordained by bishops through the sacrament of Holy Orders (CCC 1559, 1575-76).
c) Bishops oversee the administration of the sacraments. "The bishop of the place is always responsible for the Eucharist, even when a priest presides..." (CCC 1369).
3. The ruling office
a) Bishops have power to govern the church (CCC 893-896).
b) "Let all follow the bishop, as Jesus Christ follow his father, and the college of presbyters as the apostles; respect the deacons as you do God's law. Let no one do anything concerning the Church in separation from the bishop" (Ignatius of Antioch, in CCC 896).
E. All authority of the priesthood exists only in union with the pope (CCC 880-884).
F. Catholic arguments used in support of apostolic succession.
1. Indefectibility of the Church
a) It is argued from Matthew 16:18 that apostolic succession is necessary that the church might stand against the forces of Hell. They reason that for the Church to prevail until the end of time, the power of Peter and other apostles to teach, sanctify, and rule must also continue to the end. The mission of Peter and his successors is thus "to keep this faith from every lapse and to strengthen his brothers in it" (CCC 552).
b) However, Matthew 16:18 teaches nothing about apostolic succession. Jesus promised to build his church and that the gates of Hades would not prevail against it. This refers to his resurrection (cf. Acts 2:30-31, He was not abandoned to Hades).
2. The Great Commission
a) Roman Catholics argue from Matthew 28:20 that in order for Jesus to be with the apostles to the end of the age, they had to have successors (CCC 860).
b) There is nothing in this passage even to suggest what Catholic doctrine assumes; Jesus promised nothing regarding bishops or succession. Jesus was promising to be with his disciples always in their work of "making disciples" (Matt. 28:19).
3. Entrust to faithful men
a) 2 Timothy 2:2 is used to argue that Timothy was to pass on the apostolic powers to others, as he had supposedly received them from Paul by the laying on of hands (1 Tim. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6). As such Timothy would be ordaining bishops, who would do the same for others.
b) "...by the imposition of hands they [apostles] passed on to their auxiliaries the gift of the Spirit, which is transmitted down to our day through episcopal consecration (CCC 861-862).
c) These
passages talk about Timothy receiving a "spiritual gift" (1 Tim.
4. Timothy and Titus
a) Catholics claim that Paul ordained Timothy as bishop of Ephesus and Titus as Bishop of Crete (cf. CCC 1590). They observe that Timothy and Titus received the mandate from Paul to exercise the ministry of teaching (1 Tim. 4:6, 11-16; et al.); of governing the churches (1 Tim. 5; Titus 1:5; et al.); of appointing elders and deacons (1 Tim. 3; Titus 1) (see New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Apostolic Succession").
b) However, the NT never identifies Timothy or Titus as bishops. They were fellow workers with Paul (1 Cor. 16:10, 16; 2 Cor. 8:23). Each of them was instructed by Paul to appoint elders; to that end the qualifications of such men are given in both epistles (1 Tim. 3:1f; Titus 1:5f).
G. Arguments against apostolic succession.
1. The NT never teaches that the apostles ruled the universal church. Christ is the head of the church (Col. 1:18).
2. The work of sanctification is never spoken of as a work of the apostles. It is a work of God, not men (Eph. 5:26; 1 Thess. 5:23; 2 Thess. 2:13).
3. The teaching of the apostles helped form the foundation of the church (Eph. 2:20). Since that foundation has been laid, the unique teaching office of the apostles is no longer needed.
4. The Catholic Church does not appeal to Acts 1:15-26, the choosing of Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot as one of the Twelve, to substantiate its claims to apostolic succession. They do not believe that the bishops are new apostles, but that they are their successors. The passage does prove, however, that for one to succeed and apostle, he must be a witness of Christ's resurrection. This in itself would eliminate the possibility of apostolic succession beyond the first century.
III. THE PRIESTHOOD IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
A. The priestly function in the Old Testament
1. Distinguished from prophet (God's spokesman to people) and king (ruler of the people).
2. Mediator
a) Represented people before God, offered sacrifices, and interceded with God on their behalf.
b) Taught the law of God.
c) Inquired of God to learn His will.
B. Christ is now Prophet, Priest, and King.
1. He alone is our High Priest (Heb. 7:17, 24-27; 9:11f).
a) He offered Himself once for all.
b) Entered the heavenly sanctuary.
c) No more sacrifice is needed.
2. He
"sat down" in that He finished His work (Heb.
3. Christ is the only mediator between God and man (1 Tim. 2:5). This eliminates priests, bishops, pope, Mary, saints, etc.
4. Thus there is no more human priesthood as a distinct and separate order.
C. All Christians as saints are part of the priesthood of all believers.
1. A royal priesthood (1 Pet. 2:5, 9)
2. A kingdom of priests (Rev. 1:5-6; 5:9-10)
3. As
members of a royal priesthood, we have no earthly mediator. We have access to
God (Eph.
D. Spiritual sacrifices of the royal priesthood
1. Praise
and thanksgiving to God (Heb.
2. Doing
good and sharing with others (Heb.
3. Our bodies as a living and holy sacrifice (Rom. 12:1)
E. Other scriptural fallacies of the Catholic priesthood
1. "Priest" (hierus) is applied only to Christ. It is never used of an elder (presbyteros).
2. Peter referred to himself as one of many elders (presbyteros), but not as a priest or pope (1 Pet. 5:1-3).
3. It is a return to Judaism.
Boettner, Loraine, Roman Catholicism, 43-74
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 857-913, 1537-1600 (pp. 247-262, 427-446)
THE PAPACY
I. CATHOLIC CLAIMS ABOUT THE POPE
A. The Pope, the Bishop of Rome, is regarded as the head of the college of bishops. "The college or body of bishops has no authority unless united with the Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, as its head" (CCC 883).
B. The Pope, "as Vicar of Christ, and as pastor of the entire Church has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered" (CCC 882). He enjoys "supreme, full, immediate, and universal power in the care of souls" (CCC 937).
C. The Pope is regarded as the successor of Peter. Papal authority has its roots in the doctrine of the primacy of Peter--that Peter was first among the apostles and the ruler of the Church--and in the doctrine of apostolic succession.
1. "We teach and declare that, according to the gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the lord" (Vatican I).
2. "Simon Peter holds the first place in the college of the Twelve; Jesus entrusted a unique mission to him" (CCC 552, 765, 862).
3. Catholics seek biblical support for this doctrine in Matthew 16:18, 19; Luke 22:32; and John 21:15-17. We will examine these passages later.
4. Catholicism
claims that Peter became the first bishop of
5. The
special power entrusted to Peter is passed on by succession to the bishop of
D. "The Catholic Church teaches that our Lord conferred on St. Peter the first place of honor and jurisdiction in the government of His whole church, and that the same spiritual supremacy has always resided in the popes, or bishops of Rome, as being the successors of St. Peter. Consequently, to be true followers of Christ all Christians, both among the clergy and laity, must be in communion with the See of Rome, where Peter rules in the person of his successor" (Cardinal Gibbons, Faith of our Fathers, 95).
E. "The pope takes the place of Jesus Christ on earth... He is the true Vicar of Christ, the head of the entire church... He is the infallible ruler..., the universal ruler of truth, the arbiter of the world, the supreme judge of heaven and earth, the judge of all, being judged by no one, God himself on earth" (New York Catechism).
F. Catholics speak of a visible and an invisible head. The visible head, the pope, has a juridical function, to rule the organized, visible body on earth.
II. HISTORICAL ARGUMENT
A. The Catholic Church argues that Christ made Peter the head of the apostles and the Church. The apostles ordained bishops to be their successors, who submitted to Peter as their head. Peter became the first Bishop of Rome, establishing that city as the apostolic see.
1. Catholics argue that there is an historical continuity of succession from Peter to the present pope. But this cannot be sustained.
a) Little
is known about any bishops of
b) Lists presented by Catholics have gone through repeated revisions, the lasted in 1947.
c) And
what about the
2. They
cite the opinions of some early church "fathers" such as Ignatius of
Antioch and Irenaeus to argue that from the beginning all churches have
historically held to
3. These claims, however, cannot be substantiated from history.
a) There
is no evidence that Peter was bishop of
b) There
is no clear proof that Peter was ever in
c) There is no evidence that Peter ruled the universal church.
d) There is no evidence of Peter or any of the apostles having a successor.
e) There
is no evidence in the NT period that
B. A
study of history actually shows that the development of the papacy was a
gradual development that occurred over about five centuries as a result of
several factors. There were two major phases in this development: 1) a special
prestige came to be associated with the city and church at
1. Factors
in the growth of
a) Rome's historic position in the empire (their political importance, location, and wealth)
b) The
church in
c) There
was a tradition that both Peter and Paul were martyred in
d) Constantine's
"conversion" in 312 further helped
e) The
move of the imperial capital to
2. Factors in the development of theories about the Bishop of Rome
a) Doctrine of apostolic succession. By end of second century some began trying to identify historical succession of bishops back to beginning.
b) Development of Petrine Doctrine
(1) In
the third century, Tertullian used apostolic succession to argue that Peter was
(2) Stephen
(bp. 254-257), bishop of
c) In
fourth century, Damasus (bp. 366-384), bishop of
d) In
fifth century, Leo I "the Great" (Bp. 440-461) boosted his position
by providing leadership for the city against the barbarian invasions. Leo
sought more than any before him to back up his position of authority with
theory and doctrine. Using all three traditional passages, he asserted that the
whole church "ever find Peter in Peter's See." Appealing to Roman
law, he argued that his authority included the whole church and that other
bishops received their authority through him. The power and prerogatives of the
bishop of
e) Gregory I "the great" (p. 590-604) is generally regarded as the first pope. He was first to apply the title to himself.
III. ARGUMENTS FROM SCRIPTURE
A. The Catholics make several basic assumptions which must be proved from scripture regarding the pope.
1. That Peter was the chief of the apostles
2. That Peter was vicar of Christ and head of the church
3. That the apostles have successors, the bishops.
4. That the pope is Peter's successor.
B. The
Catholics appeal to Matthew 16:18 to argue that the church was "built on
Peter.... Because of the faith he confessed Peter will remain the unshakeable
rock of the Church. His mission will be to keep this faith from every lapse and
to strengthen his brothers in it" (CCC 552). They maintain that the rock
on which the church is built is Peter. The argument hinges on the use of words:
"You are Peter (petros), and upon this rock (
1. Though
the grammar of the verse alone cannot settle the question, it argues strongly
against the Catholic position. Petros, Peter's name, is masculine
gender and refers to a boulder, detached stone or pebble.
2. The context of Matthew 16:18 is against the Catholic position. The theme: "Who is Jesus?" Peter by revelation correctly answered the question, and Christ then said upon this rock I will build my church. "This" is a demonstrative adjective that can either refer to something grammatically or the idea under discussion. The context favors the latter. The rock was the content of Peter's declaration that "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God."
3. "If we trace the figurative use of the word rock through Hebrew Scripture, we find that it is never used symbolically of man, but always of God" (G. Campbell Morgan, The Gospel According to Matthew, 211). Thus, see 1 Sam. 2:2, Psalm 18:31, Isaiah 44:8, et al.
4. The
Bible uses
a) Foundation
for building (Matt.
b) Large rocks split at Christ's crucifixion (Matt. 27:51)
c) Rock
out of which burial tomb was hewn (Matt. 27:60; Mk.
d) Ledge of rock on which seed fell (Lk. 8:6, 13)
e) Christ from which the Israelites drank (1 Cor. 10:4)
f)
Christ, a rock of offense (Rom.
g) Huge rocks (Rev. 6:15, 16)
5. The rest of the Bible makes it clear that the bedrock or foundation of the church is Christ:
a) `
Isaiah
b) Isaiah 28:16 -- Messiah the foundation to be laid
c) 1
Corinthians
d) Ephesians 2:19-21 -- Christ the chief cornerstone of the foundation laid by the apostles and prophets
6. There was no "unanimous consent of the father" on this subject as the Catholic Church maintains. Augustine and Jerome, among others, understood the "rock" to be Christ, not Peter. "Launio, the eminent Gallican, found but seventeen of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church (among whom he reckons 'fathers' down to the twelfth century) who understand St. Peter to be 'the rock' and he cites forty of the contrary opinion. Yet of the 'seventeen', most of them speak only rhetorically, and with justifiable freedom" (Ante-Nicene Fathers V:561, Elucidations VII).
C. Catholics argue from Matthew 16:19 that when Jesus promised to give to him the "keys of the kingdom", he was giving him "authority to govern the house of God, which is the Church" (CCC 553). Specifically, "the words bind and loose mean: whomever you exclude from your communion, will be excluded from communion with God; whomever you receive anew into your communion, God will welcome back into his" (CCC 1444-45).